Journal of Petrology | Volume 43 | Number 7 | Pages 1121-1137 | 2002
© Oxford University Press 2002
Kerguelen Hotspot Magma Output since 130 Ma
1OCEAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE, UNIVERSITY OF TOKYO, 1-15-1 MINAMIDAI, NAKANO-KU, TOKYO 164-8639, JAPAN
2INSTITUTE FOR FRONTIER RESEARCH ON EARTH EVOLUTION, JAPAN MARINE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CENTER, 2-15 NATUSHIMA-CHO, YOKOSUKA 237-0061, JAPAN
3INSTITUTE FOR GEOPHYSICS, JACKSON SCHOOL OF GEOSCIENCES, THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN, 4412 SPICEWOOD SPRINGS ROAD, BUILDING 600, AUSTIN, TX 78759-8500, USA
4SCOTTISH UNIVERSITIES ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTRE, SCOTTISH ENTERPRISE TECHNOLOGY PARK, RANKINE AVENUE, EAST KILBRIDE G75 0QF, UK
5COLLEGE OF OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES, OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY, OCEANOGRAPHY ADMINISTRATION BUILDING 104, CORVALLIS, OR 97331-5503, USA
6DYNAMIC GRAPHICS, INC., 1015 ATLANTIC AVENUE, ALAMEDA, CA 94501-1154, USA
7DANISH LITHOSPHERE CENTER, ØSTER VOLDGADE 10, 1350 COPENHAGEN, DENMARK
8SCHOOL OF GEOSCIENCES, DIVISION OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS, THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY, N.S.W. 2006, AUSTRALIA
Received June 14, 2001; Revised typescript accepted February 25, 2002
 |
ABSTRACT |
|---|
 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMETHODSSUMMARY OF AGE RELATIONSHIPSMAGMA OUTPUT RATES AND...MANTLE SOURCES AND PLUME...CONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
|---|
The Kerguelen hotspot (Indian Ocean) has produced basalt for
130 Myr, among the longest known volcanic records from a single source. New and published 40Ar/39Ar age determinations from the Kerguelen Plateau, Broken Ridge, Rajmahal Traps, and Bunbury basalts, and of Indian and Antarctic dikes help to document the hotspot’s history. Using radiometric dates and crustal structure determined from geophysical data and drilling results, we calculate the magmatic output of the Kerguelen hotspot through time. Output rates have varied in ways not predicted by current geodynamic models; maximum eruption volumes postdate the initial surface manifestation of the hotspot as well as break-up between Antarctica and India by 
15 Myr, and magma output rates were high, as well as geographically diverse, over an interval of 25 Myr, from 120 to 95 Ma. We propose two alternatives to the standard mantle plume paradigm, one involving multiple plume sources, and another consisting of a single, but dismembered plume source. KEY WORDS: hotspot; mantle plume; large igneous province; flood basalt; Kerguelen Plateau
|
INTRODUCTION |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSSUMMARY OF AGE RELATIONSHIPSMAGMA OUTPUT RATES AND...MANTLE SOURCES AND PLUME...CONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
|---|
Most models for the origin of continental flood basalts and oceanic plateaux predict initially voluminous magmatism over a relatively short period of 1–2 Myr, followed by steady-state magma output at much lower rates (Richards et al., 1989
; Duncan & Richards, 1991). Furthermore, massive magma output from hotspots is commonly, but not always associated in space and time with continental break-up (White & McKenzie, 1989). To test the applicability of such ideas and models, we present the first integrated study on the age and eruption volumes of one of Earth’s largest flood basalt provinces (Coffin & Eldholm, 1994), the Kerguelen Plateau and Broken Ridge in the southern Indian Ocean and associated Cretaceous magmatism found near the continental margins of India, Antarctica, and Australia (Fig. 1).
|
) are shown. 
, Lamprophyres. 
, a DSDP site where overlying sediment provides a minimum age for the igneous basement. Radiometric age determinations (italics) are summarized in Table
|
|
Widespread Cretaceous and Cenozoic basaltic volcanism in the eastern Indian Ocean region has been related to the Kerguelen hotspot (Duncan, 1978
; Mahoney et al., 1983; Davies et al., 1989; Storey et al., 1989); changing motions of the Antarctic, Australian, and Indian plates have dispersed these igneous rock complexes from their original sites of emplacement (Müller et al., 1993). Radiometric ages of magmatic rocks attributed to the Kerguelen hotspot range from 130 Ma to Recent; in decreasing age order, mafic rocks forming the Kerguelen large igneous province (LIP) include Bunbury (Australia), Rajmahal (India), lamprophyre dikes of the conjugate Indian and Antarctic margins, Southern Kerguelen Plateau, Elan Bank, Central Kerguelen Plateau, Broken Ridge, Ninetyeast Ridge, Skiff Bank, Northern Kerguelen Plateau, and the recent expressions of the activity of the hotspot on the Kerguelen Archipelago, and Heard and McDonald Islands (Fig. 1, Tables 1 and 2). Here, we present new, high-precision 40Ar/39Ar age determinations for the Cretaceous volcanic rocks of Bunbury (Australia), Rajmahal (India), and the Kerguelen Plateau, and for Cretaceous lamprophyre dikes of the conjugate Indian and Antarctic margins (Table 1). We calculate crustal volumes for the various flood basalt provinces attributed to the Kerguelen hotspot, and then use our new and previously published 40Ar/39Ar age determinations (Tables 1 and 2) to determine a first-order magma output rate for the Kerguelen hotspot since its first attributed surface manifestation at 130 Ma in Western Australia (Bunbury). We then show how Kerguelen hotspot activity relates to the break-up of Eastern Gondwana and sea-floor spreading in the Indian Ocean. We conclude by speculating on the mantle plume sources that could account for these data.
|
METHODS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSSUMMARY OF AGE RELATIONSHIPSMAGMA OUTPUT RATES AND...MANTLE SOURCES AND PLUME...CONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
|---|
Estimating magma flux rates for the Kerguelen hotspot requires first evaluating which basaltic provinces may be attributed to the hotspot, using geophysical, volcanological, petrological, and geochemical data. Following Coffin et al. (2000)
, we include: (1) the continental basaltic rocks of Bunbury on the Western Australian continental margin, Rajmahal in eastern India, and lamprophyre dikes of the conjugate Indian and Antarctic continental margins; (2) the oceanic basaltic rocks of the Kerguelen Plateau, Broken Ridge, and the Ninetyeast Ridge. Iterating among the aforementioned data plus all available geochronological data (Tables 1 and 2), we interpret the ages of the various basaltic provinces, and, where necessary, subdivide them into different age provinces. Then we calculate the crustal volume of each of the interpreted age provinces; subtract continental crust that is indicated from geophysical, petrological or geochemical data, or, where continental crust is absent, normal thickness oceanic crust from those volumes; and calculate magma flux rates for the entire Kerguelen LIP. Relevant data on crustal volumes of the oceanic portions of the Kerguelen LIP have been acquired mostly during the past decade, as have radiometric ages for the entire Kerguelen LIP (Tables 1 and 2). Reliable data with which to calculate crustal volumes of the continental portions of the Kerguelen LIP await acquisition.
We calculate crustal volumes from areal and vertical dimensions, the former from analyses of the satellite-derived free-air gravity field, bathymetry and seismic reflection data, and the latter primarily from seismic reflection and refraction investigations of crustal structure, augmented by gravity modeling. For the upper crust, geophysical data are commonly correlated with outcrop and/or drilling results to arrive at structural and stratigraphic interpretations. It is important to bear in mind that only the uppermost extrusive components of the Kerguelen LIP have been sampled and dated; the greatest igneous basement penetration into any oceanic portion of the LIP is <250 m. Unexposed or inaccessible extrusive rocks, and intrusive material form the major proportion of the crustal volume, and these rocks remain unsampled except for Cenozoic plutons (Weis & Giret, 1994) and xenoliths (Grégoire et al., 1994; Hassler & Shimizu, 1998; Mattielli et al., 1999) on the Kerguelen Archipelago.
Additionally, continental crust forms part of the Kerguelen Plateau, and has been both identified on the basis of petrological and geochemical studies (Coffin et al., 2000; Frey et al., 2000) and interpreted from seismic data (Operto & Charvis, 1995, 1996; Borissova et al., 2000). Using primarily geophysical data, we have attempted to identify and subtract any continental material from the crustal volumes of the various age provinces. Similarly, for those portions of the Kerguelen LIP that formed predominantly within oceanic lithosphere, we have subtracted a layer 7·1 km thick (White et al., 1992). In this respect, our study resembles the approaches of White (1993) and Saunders et al. (1994), who excluded the thickness of normal oceanic crust in their calculations, only considering the volume of net oceanic crustal thickening.
We have determined new 40Ar/39Ar ages for the Bunbury basalts, Rajmahal basalts, Indian and Antarctic lamprophyres, and the Kerguelen Plateau (Table 1), all samples originally described by Storey et al. (1992). Samples were irradiated, loaded under ultrahigh vacuum, heated with an Ar-ion laser, and analyzed at the Free University of Amsterdam following Wijbrans et al. (1995). Plagioclase and whole-rock analyses were incremental heating experiments on 10 mg of material each; biotite analyses were total-fusion experiments on individual crystals. We report on both concordant and discordant experiments (Table 1, in roman and italic text, respectively); the complete dataset is available for downloading from the Journal of Petrology Web site at http://www.petrology.oupjournals.org. With 62–100% of the argon released included in the individual age plateaux and single-variable F ratio statistics (MSWD) all <1·44 (Table 1; Fig. 3, below), we consider the concordant experiments to be robust estimates of the crystallization ages of the sampled basalts [see, for example, criteria given by Pringle (1993) and Singer & Pringle (1996)]. The other experiments are highly discordant (MSWD >10), are probably best considered minimum age estimates only, and are not considered further here. Thus, we utilize only the concordant experiment results in our age assignments and magma flux calculations.
|
) high. |
SUMMARY OF AGE RELATIONSHIPS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSSUMMARY OF AGE RELATIONSHIPSMAGMA OUTPUT RATES AND...MANTLE SOURCES AND PLUME...CONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
|---|
We describe below the results of our present study in order of decreasing age of the volcanism related to the Kerguelen hotspot.
Bunbury Basalts
The oldest rock attributed to the Kerguelen hotspot is the Bunbury Basalt of southwestern Australia (Fig. 1) (Davies et al., 1989; Duncan & Storey, 1992; Frey et al., 1996; Ingle et al., 2002). Our new date of 132·2 ± 0·3 Ma for the Casuarina-type of Bunbury Basalt (Fig. 1; Tables 1 and 2) is corroborated by two other 40Ar/39Ar dates of 130 Ma from the same unit (Frey et al., 1996); the Gosselin-type of Bunbury basalt has been dated at 123 Ma (Frey et al., 1996). Geochemical studies of Bunbury tholeiites indicate a strong continental signature for the younger basalts, whereas the older basalts resemble oceanic lavas from Ninetyeast Ridge and the Kerguelen Archipelago (Frey et al., 1996; Ingle et al., 2002). Although the latter similarities do not uniquely define a Kerguelen hotspot source for the Casuarina-type Bunbury Basalt, geochemical evidence permits such a conclusion (Frey et al., 1996; Ingle et al., 2002).
Areally, the Bunbury Basalt appears insignificant on the scale of flood basalts, which typically cover 105–106 km2 of the Earth’s surface (e.g. Macdougall, 1988). The areal extent of lava sections of 
85 m thickness is documented from outcrop, drill holes, and geophysical surveys (Frey et al., 1996), and from these we estimate a basalt volume of 103 km3.
Rajmahal Traps
The Rajmahal basalts (Tables 1 and 2) from NE India (Fig. 1) are contemporaneous with those of the Southern Kerguelen Plateau (see below). Our new age determination of 118·2 ± 0·3 Ma (Fig. 3, below; Table 1) closely resembles previously reported ages (Table 2). We calculate the volume of extrusive rock using an area of 2 x 105 km2 (Kent et al., 1997) and an estimated average thickness of 150 m; the total volume is 3·0 x 104 km3. The subaerial Rajmahal Traps are characterized by two distinct geochemical groups. Group I Rajmahal lavas show strong geochemical similarities to Bunbury’s Casuarina type. These basalts resemble Site 749 lavas on the Southern Kerguelen Plateau, and probably contain a depleted mantle component (Kent et al., 1997; Frey et al., 2002; Ingle et al., 2002). In contrast, Group II Rajmahal rocks have geochemical characteristics more comparable with Bunbury’s Gosselin type, and are variably contaminated by ancient upper continental crust (Mahoney et al., 1983; Storey et al., 1992; Baksi, 1995; Frey et al., 1996; Ingle et al., 2002). In this respect, they are similar to basalts from Kerguelen Plateau Site 1137 (Weis et al., 2001; Ingle et al., 2002).
Southern Kerguelen Plateau
The initial manifestation of the Kerguelen hotspot in an oceanic environment is the Southern Kerguelen Plateau (Figs 1 and 2). Our new age determination of 112·4 ± 0·4 Ma for Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 750 basalts falls within the 120–110 Ma range of two other high-quality radiometric ages from Sites 1136 and 749 (Fig. 3; Tables 1 and 2). Our new analyses of basalts from Sites 738 and 749 show similar, but considerably less reliable apparent ages (Fig. 3; Table 1).
|
We subdivide the main Cretaceous Kerguelen Plateau into 120 to 110 Ma (southern) and 105 to 100 Ma (central; see below) provinces on the basis of age determinations and a prominent negative free-air gravity lineament (Coffin & Gahagan, 1995) just south of ODP Site 747 (Fig. 2). To calculate the volume of the 120 to 110 Ma portion of the Kerguelen Plateau, we used its areal and vertical dimensions, the latter obtained primarily through wide-angle seismic data (Operto & Charvis, 1995, 1996) and gravity modeling (Gladczenko & Coffin, 2001) delineating crust 22 km thick on the Southern Plateau. We subtracted a continental layer of variable thickness at the base of the crust interpreted from the wide-angle seismic data analysis (Operto & Charvis, 1995, 1996) and gravity modeling (Gladczenko & Coffin, 2001). This is also justified by the geochemical and isotopic evidence for the role of a continental component at Sites 738 and 750 (Mahoney et al., 1995; Frey et al., 2002). The calculated volume of the magma produced between 120 and 110 Ma by the Kerguelen hotspot to form the Southern Kerguelen Plateau is 8·5 x 106 km3, at least two orders of magnitude more magma than the hotspot produced in the preceding 10 Myr.
Lamprophyres
Lamprophyres are found along the conjugate Indian and Antarctic margins (Fig. 1). In India both alkaline and ultramafic varieties occur as horizontal tubes, dikes, and sills. We have determined an age of 114·9 ± 0·3 Ma for a dike (Fig. 3; Tables 1 and 2), which resembles ages determined by Kent et al. (1998). Rare ultramafic lamprophyres (alnöites) occur as sills and dikes in Antarctica, and these yield an age of 114·0 ± 0·3 Ma (Fig. 3; Tables 1 and 2). Both the Indian and Antarctic dikes appear to be temporally associated with the Rajmahal Traps and the Southern Kerguelen Plateau, and have been attributed to the Kerguelen hotspot (Storey et al., 1989, 1992; Kent, 1991; Kent et al., 1992, 1998). These rocks probably reflect small degrees of partial melt from the sub-continental mantle heated by the nearby Kerguelen hotspot, and their total volume is likely to be relatively small, although volumes of undocumented, but probably contemporaneous sills and associated underplating could be significant.
Elan Bank
Continental material recovered from ODP Site 1137 (Coffin et al., 2000; Frey et al., 2000; Nicolaysen et al., 2001), corroborated by seismic data (Charvis et al., 1997; Könnecke et al., 1997; Borissova et al., 2000), suggests that Elan Bank is a microcontinent capped and flanked by 110 to 105 Ma volcanic rock (Table 2). Geochemically, the basalts are related to the Kerguelen hotspot source and are contaminated by continental crust (Weis et al., 2001; Ingle et al., 2002).
We used the areal and vertical dimensions of Elan Bank to calculate its total crustal volume of 1·4 x 106 km3, and interpreted the volcanic and plutonic component to be 20% of the total volume on the basis of both seismic refraction and reflection data (Charvis et al., 1997; Borissova et al., 2000).
Central Kerguelen Plateau
ODP Site 1138 (Figs 1 and 2) tholeiitic basalt, dated at 100 Ma (Table 2), is slightly younger than the Elan Bank and Southern Kerguelen Plateau basalts. The geochemical characteristics of the basalt support a Kerguelen hotspot source, with no indications of any continental lithospheric component (Coffin et al., 2000; Frey et al., 2000; Neal et al., 2002).
To calculate the volume of the 105 to 100 Ma portion of the Kerguelen Plateau, we used its area, a maximum crustal thickness of 23·5 km determined from wide-angle seismic data (Charvis et al., 1995; Charvis & Operto, 1999), and the results of gravity modeling using the seismic data as control (Gladczenko & Coffin, 2001). We subtracted a section of normal oceanic crust of 7·1 km thickness (White et al., 1992) from the crustal section. The calculated volume of the magma produced between 105 and 100 Ma by the Kerguelen hotspot to form the Central Kerguelen Plateau is 4·5 x 106 km3.
Broken Ridge
Igneous basement of Broken Ridge was first drilled during ODP Leg 183 (Coffin et al., 2000; Frey et al., 2000). Dating of the basalt has yielded ages of 95 Ma, slightly younger than the Central Kerguelen Plateau (Table 2). We choose to place all of Broken Ridge into the 5 Myr bin between 95 and 100 Ma, although alternative assignations are possible. Most basalt from Broken Ridge is tholeiitic, although several samples fall in the alkalic field (Mahoney et al., 1995; Coffin et al., 2000; Frey et al., 2000; Neal et al., 2002). Basalts from the western Broken Ridge, presumably more distal from continental influence, show no evidence for the involvement of continental lithospheric material in their petrogenesis. In contrast, basalts from the eastern part of the ridge are characterized by elemental and isotopic evidence for continental lithospheric contamination.
We use a published crustal thickening estimate of 4·1 x 106 km3 for the volume of Broken Ridge attributable to the Kerguelen hotspot (Coffin & Eldholm, 1994). This estimate lies fairly close to a previous figure of 5·2 x 106 km3 (Schubert & Sandwell, 1989) for the volume of crustal thickening in excess of normal oceanic crust.
Ninetyeast Ridge and Skiff Bank
Tholeiitic basalts from the Ninetyeast Ridge (Fig. 1) range in age from 82 to 37 Ma, with a consistent decrease in age to the south (Table 2). The source of these basalts was the Kerguelen hotspot (e.g. Duncan, 1978; Mahoney et al., 1983; Weis et al., 1991; Duncan & Storey, 1992) and geochemical evidence suggests a purely oceanic origin (e.g. Hekinian, 1974; Frey et al., 1977, 1991; Saunders et al., 1991; Weis et al., 1991). Grevemeyer et al. (2001) have calculated the total crustal volume of the Ninetyeast Ridge to be 13·6 x 106 km3. We subtracted a section of normal oceanic crust of 7·1 km thickness from the total crustal volume, leaving 4·7 x 106 km3 attributable to the Kerguelen hotspot. This volume does not include probable Ninetyeast Ridge rocks buried beneath the Bengal Fan, presumably emplaced from 95 to 85 Ma. If we assume that the Kerguelen hotspot produced the northernmost Ninetyeast Ridge during this interval at the same rate as from 85 to 35 Ma, then the total volume of Ninetyeast Ridge crust attributable to the Kerguelen hotspot would be 5·7 x 106 km3.
Basalts and more silicic rocks drilled at ODP Site 1139 on Skiff Bank have yielded ages of 68 Ma (Table 2). To calculate the crustal volume of Skiff Bank, we applied the technique of Coffin & Eldholm (1994) to the entire Northern Kerguelen Plateau as defined areally by Coffin & Gahagan (1995) (Fig. 2). Crustal thickness has been determined to be 15–20 km beneath the Kerguelen Archipelago (Charvis et al., 1995), and we used a median value of 17·5 km. We subtracted a section of oceanic crust of 7·1 km thickness from the crustal section to determine the net amount of thickened crust. The calculated thickened crustal volume of the Northern Kerguelen Plateau is 2·5 x 106 km3. As Skiff Bank encompasses 10% of the Northern Kerguelen Plateau, we interpret Skiff Bank’s crustal volume to be 10% of the total volume, or 0·3 x 106 km3.
Northern Kerguelen Plateau
Kerguelen hotspot activity since 40-35 Ma has produced the Kerguelen Archipelago (Nougier et al., 1983; Nicolaysen et al., 2000), and presumably the Northern Kerguelen Plateau on which it is situated (Figs 1 and 2). Basalts and associated rocks from ODP Site 1140, the Kerguelen Archipelago, Heard Island, and the McDonald Islands are available for study. Radiometric dates suggest that basalts now exposed at the surface of the Kerguelen Archipelago formed from 30 to 24 Ma (Nicolaysen et al., 2000) whereas more alkaline plugs and dikes are distinctly younger (Weis et al., 1993, 1998). No evidence exists for a geochemically distinct continental component in lavas from the Kerguelen Archipelago (Weis et al., 1993; Frey & Weis, 1995; Doucet et al., 2002).
As described above for Skiff Bank, we calculated the total crustal volume of the Northern Kerguelen Plateau (including Skiff Bank) to be 2·5 x 106 km3. We estimate the total volume of magma produced by the Kerguelen hotspot to form the Cenozoic Northern Kerguelen Plateau to be 90% of that total, when the volume of Skiff Bank is subtracted, or 2·3 x 106 km3.
Heard and McDonald Islands
Heard and McDonald Islands, although situated on the interpreted 105 to 110 Ma portion of the Kerguelen Plateau (Figs 1 and 2), have erupted recently (Barling & Goldstein, 1990). Their igneous rocks form a highly potassic suite, and geochemical data suggest an enriched component in the young lavas (Barling et al., 1994). Heard and McDonald Islands, separated by 43 km, are arguably strong candidates for the current location of the Kerguelen hotspot. No other currently active submarine or subaerial volcanism has been observed in the Kerguelen Plateau region, although some models suggest that the Kerguelen Archipelago is the current location of the Kerguelen hotspot (e.g. Steinberger, 2000; Kent et al., 2002). A chain of gravity highs interpreted as volcanic centers extends between the Kerguelen Archipelago and Heard and McDonald Islands (Fig. 2) (Coffin et al., 1986). Basalts dredged from one volcanic center yield radiometric ages of 21 Ma, suggesting an age-progressive track of the Kerguelen hotspot from the Kerguelen Archipelago to Heard and McDonald Islands (Weis et al., 2002). Volumetrically, Heard and McDonald Islands do not appear to contribute significantly to the Kerguelen hotspot output manifested by the Northern Kerguelen Plateau.
|
MAGMA OUTPUT RATES AND PLATE TECTONICS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSSUMMARY OF AGE RELATIONSHIPSMAGMA OUTPUT RATES AND...MANTLE SOURCES AND PLUME...CONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
|---|
40Ar/39Ar age determinations of Kerguelen hotspot basalts (Tables 1 and 2), and crustal volumes determined from wide-angle seismic experiments and gravity modeling permit calculation of the magma output rate of the Kerguelen hotspot through time (Fig. 4). Although existing data are limited, they nevertheless provide a first-order idea of how rates may have varied through time.
|
Magma output associated with the Kerguelen hotspot commenced at a relatively low rate (<<0·1 km3/yr) at 132 Ma with the Casuarina-type Bunbury Basalt. Such low production rates continued, probably intermittently, to 123 Ma with the Gosselin-type Bunbury basalt. Then, between 120 and 110 Ma, magma output rate increased by several orders of magnitude, to 0·9 km3/yr, with emplacement of the Southern Kerguelen Plateau, Rajmahal Traps, and lamprophyres on the Indian and Antarctic continental margins.
Following the 120 to 110 Ma peak in magma production, Kerguelen hotspot output appears to have waned by nearly an order of magnitude, to 0·1 km3/yr, for several million years, although this may be an artifact of sparse sampling or errors in assessing the contribution of hotspot magmatism to the crustal volume of Elan Bank. The Central Kerguelen Plateau formed between 105 and 100 Ma at a rate of 0·9 km3/yr, similar to that of the Southern Kerguelen Plateau. Next, Broken Ridge formed from 100 to 95 Ma at a slightly lower rate of 0·8 km3/yr. Magma output rates for the Kerguelen hotspot between 120 and 95 Ma exceed those of most known hotspot tracks (White, 1993). No rocks have been definitively identified as products of the Kerguelen hotspot between 95 and 82 Ma, although, as previously noted, the oldest part of Ninetyeast Ridge, buried beneath the Bengal Fan, may consist of rocks formed during this time interval. Whether the Kerguelen hotspot magma flux diminished abruptly or gradually by nearly an order of magnitude, to 0·1 km3/yr, between 95 and 82 Ma is open to interpretation; we assume an abrupt change at 95 Ma (Fig. 4).
Between 82 and 38 Ma, the Kerguelen hotspot generated the Ninetyeast Ridge and Skiff Bank at a rate of 0·1 km3/yr. Finally, from 40 Ma to the present, the hotspot has produced the Northern Kerguelen Plateau, including the Kerguelen Archipelago, and Heard and McDonald Islands, at about the same rate as during the 82 to 38 Ma interval. Tertiary and Quaternary rates for the Kerguelen hotspot are typical of many hotspots, including Hawaii (White, 1993). Since 40 Ma, some changes in hotspot magma flux are suggested by a 30 to 24 Ma episode of volcanism in the Kerguelen Archipelago (Nicolaysen et al., 2000). Our integrated value for Kerguelen hotspot excess magma output since 130 Ma totals 2·5 x 107 km3 (Table 2), considerably less than a previous estimate (Saunders et al., 1994). The difference may be attributed at least in part to better seismic control on crustal thicknesses, improved gravity modeling, and elimination of continental components of the Kerguelen Plateau.
We note that variation in lithospheric thickness, including topography at the lithospheric–asthenospheric interface (e.g. Artyushkov et al., 1980; White & McKenzie, 1989, 1995; Thompson & Gibson, 1991; Sleep, 1996, 1997), is a major control on magma output from hotspots. Thick lithosphere (e.g. continental cratons) inhibits decompressional melting as well as vertical melt migration, whereas thin lithosphere (e.g. spreading centers, rift zones) enhances both. Furthermore, buoyancy of a hotspot’s mantle source material can result in laterally ascending flow, which also enhances decompressional melting and vertical melt migration. Plate motions since 130 Ma have resulted in both continental and oceanic lithosphere of variable thickness transiting over the Kerguelen hotspot (Fig. 5). Rare earth element inversions of basalt compositions (McKenzie & O’Nions, 1991, 1995; White et al., 1992; White & McKenzie, 1995) have provided some insight into melting depths and therefore spatial relationships between the Kerguelen hotspot and nearby spreading centers (Kent & McKenzie, 1994; Kent et al., 1997). Below we summarize what is known about Indian Ocean plate reconstructions and lithospheric thicknesses in relation to the Kerguelen hotspot.
|
A plate reconstruction model for the Indian and Southern Ocean since 130 Ma [Royer & Sandwell (1989); as modified by Lawver et al. (1992, 2001) and Royer et al. (1992)] (Fig. 5), indicates that sea-floor spreading initiated between Western Australia and Greater India during chron M11 (133 Ma) (Markl, 1974, 1978) [geomagnetic polarity time scales of Gradstein et al. (1994) for Mesozoic time, and Cande & Kent (1995) for Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic time, used throughout]. The age of initiation of sea-floor spreading between India and Antarctica, however, is more problematic (Kent et al., 2002). Only preliminary, differing Mesozoic magnetic anomaly interpretations offshore the portion of the East Antarctic margin conjugate to the eastern Indian margin have been published to date (Ishihara et al., 2000; Rotstein et al., 2001). Offshore eastern India in the Bay of Bengal (Fig. 1), magnetic anomalies M11 (133 Ma) to M0 (119 Ma) have been identified (Ramana et al., 1994). However, the presence of continental lithosphere within the Kerguelen Plateau (Elan Bank, Southern Kerguelen Plateau) and possibly Broken Ridge, and of apparent oceanic crust in the Enderby Basin and Princess Elizabeth Trough between the Kerguelen Plateau and Antarctica (Fig. 1), indicates that when India and Antarctica first broke up, continental portions of Elan Bank and the Southern Kerguelen Plateau were attached to Greater India. Subsequently, at least portions of the Early Cretaceous mid-ocean ridge system between Antarctica and India jumped northward towards India one or more times as the Enderby Basin continued to open, creating the Elan Bank microcontinent and dispersing continental fragments in the Southern Kerguelen Plateau. This, in turn, suggests the existence of one or more abandoned, Early Cretaceous spreading centers between Antarctica and the Kerguelen Plateau, and that the Enderby Basin opened before chron M11 (133 Ma). However, because of a lack of definitive geophysical or geological data, the initial age of continental break-up between India (with continental components of the Kerguelen Plateau and Broken Ridge attached) and Antarctica could be anywhere between 133 Ma (e.g. Lawver et al., 1992) and 165 Ma (e.g. Roeser et al., 1996). This uncertainty makes evaluation of the initial effects of various plume models, including impact and incubation, difficult, especially with respect to cause and effect of plume activity and continental break-up. Furthermore, because the 120 to 95 Ma peak in Kerguelen hotspot magma output coincides with the long Cretaceous Normal Superchron (119 to 84 Ma), prospects for identifying plate tectonic settings, especially interactions between the hotspot and Cretaceous mid-ocean ridge system, appear to be slim.
Appearance of the Kerguelen hotspot’s apparent initial magmas, the Casuarina and Gosselin types of Bunbury Basalts in SW Australia (Figs 1 and 5), correlates both temporally and spatially with continental break-up, and therefore, in all probability, with the existence of thinned continental lithosphere. Casuarina ages of 128 to 132 Ma (Tables 1 and 2) coincide approximately with the oldest magnetic anomaly, M11 (133 Ma), offshore southwestern Australia (Markl, 1974, 1978) that marks the onset of sea-floor spreading between Australia and Greater India. The Gosselin age of 123 Ma roughly coincides with an estimate of 125 Ma for the initiation of sea-floor spreading between Australia and Antarctica (Stagg & Willcox, 1992). Interpreted Lower Cretaceous volcanic rock capping the Naturaliste Plateau (Figs 1 and 5), due west of the Bunbury Basalts, could be correlative with them (Coleman et al., 1982). Continental rocks dredged from the southern flank of the Naturaliste Plateau suggest that the feature is cored by continental crust (Beslier et al., 2001), so the volume of volcanic rock potentially related to Bunbury is unknown. However, as noted previously, the Bunbury Basalts do not appear to be of flood basalt magnitude either in area or volume, nor does the Perth Basin continental margin appear to be more than weakly volcanic (Symonds et al., 1998). So if indeed the Bunbury Basalts ± Naturaliste Plateau volcanic rocks represent the initial output of the Kerguelen hotspot, the underlying anomalous mantle was not significantly hot, wet, or voluminous enough to produce either a continental flood basalt province or a volcanic passive margin despite the enhancing effects of thin, weakened lithosphere on decompressional melting. In marked contrast, voluminous magmatism accompanied 136 to 158 Ma continental break-up between Greater India and Australia to the north, creating volcanic margins and perhaps the younger Cuvier and Wallaby plateaux (Figs 1 and 5) northward along the margin of Western and NW Australia (Symonds et al., 1998). To date, no hotspot source or sources have been identified for that voluminous magmatism.
The next phase of magmatism attributed to the Kerguelen hotspot began at least 15 Myr, and perhaps as many as 45–50 Myr, after sea-floor spreading started between India and Antarctica (Fig. 5). During this phase, the Kerguelen hotspot produced its only features of flood basalt scale, i.e. 105–106 km2 areal extent, on both thinned continental crust (Rajmahal Traps; Kent et al., 1997) and in an ocean basin (Southern Kerguelen Plateau, Central Kerguelen Plateau, Broken Ridge) (Figs 1, 2 and 5). Between 120 and 110 Ma, the Southern Kerguelen Plateau grew at a rate of 0·9 km3/yr (Fig. 4). Magma output rates were also high from 105 to 100 Ma (0·9 km3/yr) and 100 to 95 (0·8 km3/yr) Ma, with the formation of the Central Kerguelen Plateau and Broken Ridge, respectively.
The peak output rates of the Kerguelen hotspot from 120 to 95 Ma (Fig. 4) lag initial break-up between India and Antarctica by 15–75 Myr. Corroborating evidence is that the East Antarctic continental margin south of the Kerguelen Plateau does not exhibit seismic characteristics that would classify it as volcanic (Stagg, 1985; P. A. Symonds, personal communication, 2001). Neither does the conjugate continental margin of East India (e.g. Gopala Rao et al., 1997; Chand et al., 2001), although thick sediments of the Bengal Fan mask the margin’s basement structure due south of the Rajmahal Traps (e.g. Kent et al., 1997; Subrahmanyam et al., 1999). Thus, unlike the Iceland hotspot and the associated North Atlantic volcanic province, and the Tristan hotspot and the associated Paraná–Etendeka flood basalt province, the peak output of the Kerguelen hotspot cannot be correlated temporally or spatially with a major phase of continental break-up and volcanic margin formation. Rather, like the relationship between the Réunion hotspot, the Deccan flood basalts, and the break-up between the Seychelles and West India (e.g. Müller et al., 2001), the peak output of the Kerguelen hotspot appears to coincide with one or more episodes of microcontinent formation as pieces of East India, most obviously Elan Bank, broke off and became isolated within oceanic lithosphere. If this hypothesis, the Mesozoic magnetic anomaly identifications in the Bay of Bengal (Ramana et al., 1994), and the geometry of plate reconstructions (Fig. 5) are correct, the age of oceanic crust abutting East India would be diachronous, younging to the NE. This hypothesis would also predict that the portion of the East India continental margin from which Elan Bank and portions of the Southern Kerguelen Plateau broke up and separated would be volcanic, a prediction that awaits acquisition of high-quality, deep seismic data along that margin.
Spatially, volcanic rocks attributed to the Kerguelen hotspot are at their maximum geographical extent from 120 to 110 Ma. At 110 Ma, for example, the distance between the Antarctic lamprophyres and the Rajmahal Traps is 2000 km (Figs 1 and 5). New and published 40Ar/39Ar age determinations (Tables 1 and 2) indicate simultaneous volcanism in India (Rajmahal Traps, lamprophyres), Antarctica (lamprophyres), and the Enderby Basin (Southern Kerguelen Plateau). That volcanism occurs over such a broad region is not surprising; what is surprising is that magmatic products from a single plume would apparently bypass the relatively young oceanic lithosphere of the Enderby Basin south of the Southern Kerguelen Plateau, including active spreading centres, and the continent–ocean transition lithosphere of East Antarctica and much of eastern India, to erupt on old continental lithosphere, albeit probably rifted and thinned, of India and Antarctica (Fig. 5).
From 82 (possibly 95) to 35 Ma, the Kerguelen hotspot produced the 5000 km long Ninetyeast Ridge. Geochemical evidence suggests that much of it formed relatively close to or at a spreading ridge axis (Saunders et al., 1991; Weis et al., 1991), but the lack of any conjugate feature on the Antarctic plate (compare the Iceland hotspot and the Greenland–Faeroe–Shetland Ridge) casts considerable doubt that the Kerguelen hotspot coincided with a spreading center from 82 Ma until break-up between the Central Kerguelen Plateau and Broken Ridge at 40 Ma (Fig. 5). Subsequently, the Antarctic plate moved over the Kerguelen hotspot, and the Northern Kerguelen Plateau was constructed on relatively old oceanic lithosphere. Some evidence exists for variable Tertiary hotspot output in the Kerguelen Archipelago (Nicolaysen et al., 2000) as well as more recent intrusive and extrusive magmatism (Weis et al., 1993, 1998; Weis & Giret, 1994). Since at least 21 Ma, Kerguelen hotspot magmatism has constructed volcanic edifices on the Cretaceous Central Kerguelen Plateau, including Heard and McDonald Islands (Coffin et al., 1986; Weis et al., 2002).
|
MANTLE SOURCES AND PLUME–LITHOSPHERE INTERACTIONS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSSUMMARY OF AGE RELATIONSHIPSMAGMA OUTPUT RATES AND...MANTLE SOURCES AND PLUME...CONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
|---|
The interplay between Kerguelen hotspot magmatism and Indian Ocean plate motions since Early Cretaceous time has produced a complicated record to decipher. What is clear, however, from the preceding discussion, as well as from a large body of published work, is that the Kerguelen hotspot challenges many widely held assumptions about mantle plumes (Wilson, 1963
, 1965; Morgan, 1971, 1972). Current plume models predict massive magmatism coeval with continental break-up (e.g. White & McKenzie, 1989; Anderson, 1995), voluminous magmatism associated with an individual plume exploiting thin and weak lithosphere (e.g. Artyushkov et al., 1980; White & McKenzie, 1989, 1995; Thompson & Gibson, 1991; Sleep, 1996, 1997), and temporal scales of <5 Myr for plume-head-type magmatism (e.g. Campbell & Griffiths, 1990). Large volumes of magmatism apparently did not accompany the break-up of India and Antarctica, but perhaps did accompany the break-up between India and Elan Bank. Extensive Early Cretaceous magmatic activity did not affect large areas of relatively young oceanic and transitional lithosphere between the Southern Kerguelen Plateau and Antarctica, including active spreading centres, and along much of the margin of East India, yet produced lamprophyres by partial melting of the relatively old continental lithosphere of eastern India and East Antarctica. Finally, peak output rates for magmatism attributed to the Kerguelen plume lasted for 25 Myr. Thus, our results indicate more complex plume–lithosphere interactions and longer-lived voluminous magmatism for the Kerguelen hotspot than predicted by current models.
As alternatives to incubating single plume-head models (e.g. Kent et al., 1992; Saunders et al., 1992; Storey et al., 1992), we suggest two possibilities: (1) that the magmatism attributed to the Kerguelen plume did not arise from a single plume source, but from multiple plume sources (e.g. Burke, 2001; Wilson & Patterson, 2001); or (2) that a single plume source accounts for the magmatic products attributed to the Kerguelen plume, but that vigorous mantle circulation during Early Cretaceous time (e.g. Stein & Hofmann, 1994) caused strong mantle shear flow that split the initial Kerguelen plume conduit into several ‘diapirs’ of varying sizes, buoyancies, and mantle ascent rates (e.g. Olson, 1990; Steinberger & O’Connell, 1998).
Multiple sources for regional hotspot volcanism are suggested by tomographic images of the lowermost mantle that show heterogeneous slow regions in which slower, D" ‘hotspots’ are embedded (e.g. Garnero, 2000). Multiple, finger-like convective instabilities in the upper mantle have recently been proposed to explain the Tertiary–Quaternary volcanism of western and central Europe (Wilson & Patterson, 2001). If multiple mantle plumes can arise from individual heterogeneous slow regions at either the core–mantle boundary or the 670 km discontinuity, then much, if not all, of the temporal and spatial variability displayed by the volcanic products attributed to the Kerguelen hotspot could be explained. This scenario might also explain the geochemical heterogeneity characterizing Kerguelen hotspot-related magmatism (e.g. Frey et al., 1977, 1991; Storey et al., 1989, 1992; Saunders et al., 1991; Weis et al., 1991; Frey & Weis, 1995). Additionally, multiple plumes ascending from a single source region could account for massive Cretaceous volcanism offshore Western Australia that has not so far been linked to the Kerguelen hotspot (e.g. Symonds et al., 1998).
Different ‘diapirs’ from the same sub-lithospheric mantle source could also explain the Kerguelen hotspot products’ distribution in time and space. In Early Cretaceous time, separate mantle diapirs could have produced the Bunbury Basalts, the Southern Kerguelen Plateau, the Rajmahal Traps–Indian lamprophyres, the Antarctic lamprophyres, and the Central Kerguelen Plateau–Broken Ridge. As mantle circulation rates slowed during Late Cretaceous time, a single plume conduit could have become continuous and long-lived, producing the Ninetyeast Ridge. Thereafter, old oceanic lithosphere, slow Antarctic plate motion relative to the plume conduit, and thickened Cretaceous Kerguelen Plateau lithosphere may account for the lack of a well-defined hotspot trace since 40 Ma.
Little is known about how the mass and energy flux of mantle plumes varies with time. Hawaii, the prototypical plume with its continuity of magma output over time (e.g. Duncan & Clague, 1985), is probably an end-member of the spectrum. At the other end of the spectrum are short-lived, massive bursts of flood basalt volcanism that lack any obvious subsequent volcanic record, e.g. the Central Atlantic magmatic province (Marzoli et al., 1999). Kerguelen appears to lie somewhere in the middle of this spectrum, as well-defined hotspot tracks are difficult to discern both before and after the creation of Ninetyeast Ridge.
|
CONCLUSIONS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSSUMMARY OF AGE RELATIONSHIPSMAGMA OUTPUT RATES AND...MANTLE SOURCES AND PLUME...CONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
|---|
The Kerguelen hotspot source has produced
2·5 x 107 km3 of mafic crust since 130 Ma. Magma output has varied significantly through time (Fig. 4), beginning with low volumes contemporaneous with or postdating continental break-up in Early Cretaceous time (Fig. 5); extending through at least one and possibly two peaks in Early and Late Cretaceous time into a pre-existing and growing ocean basin; and finally tapering to relatively steady-state output in Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic time. The 25 Myr duration of peak hotspot output at geographically and tectonically diverse settings is difficult to reconcile with current plume models. We propose two alternatives to the standard Hawaii model for hotspots, one involving multiple mantle plume sources, and the other a single, but dismembered plume source. Although we believe that our calculated trends in the Kerguelen hotspot magma output curve are relatively robust, more high-precision age determinations, additional geophysical investigations of crustal structure, improved means to attach realistic volume estimates to the age determinations, better petrological and geochemical control on the hotspot’s magma output, and increased understanding of hotspot melting, melt migration, and magmatism will significantly improve quantification of magma output. However, in light of currently available data, the possibilities of multiple plume sources or of a single plume source separating into a number of separate diapirs to account for the Cretaceous and Cenozoic volcanism in the eastern Indian Ocean region appear to require serious consideration and critical evaluation.
|
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
|---|
This research was supported by the Joint Oceanographic Institutions–US Science Support Program (JSC2-97); the Texas A&M University Research Foundation; the US National Science Foundation (INT-99-03454); the Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, France; a US National Science Foundation International Fellowship for M.S.P. to the Free University of Amsterdam; and the British National Environmental Research Council-funded Argon Isotope Facility at SUERC. We thank Andy Saunders for especially detailed and helpful comments; Olav Eldholm, Fred Frey and Dominique Weis for constructive reviews; Marge Wilson and Dominique Weis for conscientious editing; Ingo Grevemeyer for data on the crustal volume of Ninetyeast Ridge; and Kevin Burke, Fred Frey, Stephanie Ingle, Ray Kent and Dominique Weis for stimulating discussions, reprints, and preprints. This paper is UTIG Contribution 1559.
|
FOOTNOTES |
|---|
*Corresponding author. Present address: Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo, 1-15-1 Minamidai, Nakano-ku, Tokyo 164-8639, Japan. Fax: +81-3-5351-6438. E-mail: mcoffin{at}ori.u-tokyo.ac.jp
|
REFERENCES |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSSUMMARY OF AGE RELATIONSHIPSMAGMA OUTPUT RATES AND...MANTLE SOURCES AND PLUME...CONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
|---|
Anderson, D. L. (1995). Lithosphere, asthenosphere, and perisphere. Reviews of Geophysics 33, 125–149.
Artyushkov, E. V., Shlesinger, A. E. & Yanshin, A. L. (1980). The origin of vertical crustal movements within lithospheric plates. In: Bally, A. W., Bender, P. L., McGetchin, T. R. & Walcott, R. I. (eds) Dynamics of Plate Interiors. Geodynamics Series, American Geophysical Union 1, 37–51.
Baksi, A. K. (1995). Petrogenesis and timing of volcanism in the Rajmahal flood basalt province, northeastern India. Chemical Geology 121, 73–90.[Web of Science]
Baksi, A. K., Barman, T. R., Paul, D. K. & Farrar, E. (1987). Widespread Early Cretaceous flood basalt volcanism in Eastern India: geochemical data from the Rajmahal–Bengal–Sylhet Traps. Chemical Geology 63, 133–141.
Barling, J. & Goldstein, S. L. (1990). Extreme isotopic variations in Heard Island lavas and the nature of mantle reservoirs. Nature 348, 59–62.
Barling, J., Goldstein, S. L. & Nicholls, I. A. (1994). Geochemistry of Heard Island (southern Indian Ocean): characterization of an enriched mantle component and implications for enrichment of the sub-Indian ocean mantle. Journal of Petrology 35, 1017–1053.
Beslier, M.-O., Le Bihan, T., Féraud, G. & Girardeau, J. (2001). Cretaceous ultra-slow spreading in the ocean–continent transition along the southwest Australian passive margin: contraints from 40Ar/39Ar dating. European Union of Geosciences Journal of Conference Abstracts 6, 718.
Borissova, I., Coffin, M. F., Moore, A., Sayers, J., Symonds, P. & Teliatnikov, I. (2000). Volcanostratigraphy of the Elan Bank (Kerguelen Plateau) and implication for the regional tectonics. EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union 81, S431.
Burke, K. (2001). Since 200 Ma nearly all large igneous provinces (LIPs) have been emplaced above deep mantle low velocity volumes (DMLVVS). EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union 82, F1134.
Campbell, I. H. & Griffiths, R. W. (1990). Implications of mantle plume structure for the evolution of flood basalts. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 99, 79–93.
Cande, S. C. & Kent, D. V. (1995). Revised calibration of the geomagnetic polarity timescale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic. Journal of Geophysical Research 100, 6093–6095.
Chand, S., Radhakrishna, M. & Subrahmanyam, C. (2001). India–East Antarctica conjugate margins: rift-shear tectonic setting inferred from gravity and bathymetry data. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 185, 225–236.
Charvis, P. & Operto, S. (1999). Structure of the Cretaceous Kerguelen Volcanic Province (southern Indian Ocean) from wide-angle seismic data. Journal of Geodynamics 28, 51–71.[Web of Science]
Charvis, P., Recq, M., Operto, S. & Brefort, D. (1995). Deep structure of the northern Kerguelen Plateau and hotspot-related activity. Geophysical Journal International 122, 899–924.[Web of Science]
Charvis, P., Operto, S., Lesne, O. & Royer, J.-Y. (1997). Velocity structure of the Kerguelen volcanic province from wide-angle seismic data: petrological implications. EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union 78, F711.
Coffin, M. F. & Eldholm, O. (1994). Large igneous provinces: crustal structure, dimensions, and external consequences. Reviews of Geophysics 32, 1–36.[Web of Science]
Coffin, M. F. & Gahagan, L. M. (1995). Ontong Java and Kerguelen Plateaux: Cretaceous Icelands? Journal of the Geological Society, London 152, 1047–1052.
Coffin, M. F., Davies, H. L. & Haxby, W. F. (1986). Structure of the Kerguelen Plateau province from Seasat altimetry and seismic reflection data. Nature 324, 134–136.
Coffin, M. F., Frey, F. A., Wallace, P. J., et al. (eds) (2000). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 183. College Station, TX: Ocean Drilling Program, 101 pp.
Coleman, P. J., Michael, P. J. & Mutter, J. C. (1982). The origin of the Naturaliste Plateau, SE Indian Ocean: implications from dredged basalts. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia 29, 457–468.[Web of Science]
Colwell, J. B., Symonds, P. A. & Crawford, A. J. (1994). The nature of the Wallaby (Cuvier) Plateau and other igneous provinces of the west Australian margin. AGSO Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics 15, 137–156.
Davies, H. L., Sun, S.-s., Frey, F. A., Gautier, I., McCulloch, M. T., Price, R. C., Bassias, Y., Klootwijk, C. T. & LeClaire, L. (1989). Basalt basement from the Kerguelen Plateau and the trail of a Dupal plume. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 103, 457–469.
Doucet, S., Weis, D., Scoates, J. S., Nicolaysen, K., Frey, F. A. & Giret, A. (2002). The depleted mantle component in Kerguelen Archipelago basalts: petrogenesis of tholeiitic–transitional basalts from the Loranchet Peninsula. Journal of Petrology 43, 1341–1366.
Duncan, R. (1978). Geochronology of basalts from the Ninetyeast Ridge and continental dispersion in the eastern Indian Ocean. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 4, 283–305.
Duncan, R. A. (1991). Age distribution of volcanism along aseismic ridges in the eastern Indian Ocean. In: Weissel, J., Peirce, J., Taylor, E., Alt, J. et al. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 121. College Station, TX: Ocean Drilling Program, pp. 507–517.
Duncan, R. A. (2002). A time frame for construction of the Kerguelen Plateau and Broken Ridge. Journal of Petrology 43, 1109–1119.
Duncan, R.A. & Clague, D.A. (1985). Pacific plate motion recorded by linear volcanic chains. In: Nairn, A. E. M., Stehli, F. G. & Uyeda, S. (eds) The Ocean Basins and Margins, Volume 7A, The Pacific Ocean. New York: Plenum, pp. 89–121.
Duncan, R. A. & Richards, M. A. (1991). Hotspots, mantle plumes, flood basalts, and true polar wander. Reviews of Geophysics 29, 31–50.
Duncan, R. A. & Storey, M. (1992). The life cycle of Indian Ocean hotspots. In: Duncan, R. A., Rea, D. K., Kidd, R. B., von Rad, U. & Weissel, J. K. (eds) Synthesis of Results from Scientific Drilling in the Indian Ocean. Geophysical Monograph, American Geophysical Union 70, 91–103.
Frey, F. A. & Weis, D. (1995). Temporal evolution of the Kerguelen plume: geochemical evidence from similar 38 to 82 Ma lavas forming the Ninetyeast Ridge. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 121, 12–28.
Frey, F. A., Dickey, J. S., Jr, Thompson, G. & Bryan, W. B. (1977). Eastern Indian Ocean DSDP Sites: correlations between petrography, geochemistry, and tectonic setting. In: Heirtzler, J. R., Bolli, H. M., Davies, T. A., Saunders, J. B. & Sclater, J. G. (eds) Indian Ocean Geology and Biostratigraphy. Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union, pp. 189–257.
Frey, F. A., Jones, W. B., Davies, H. & Weis, D. (1991). Geochemical and petrologic data for basalts from Sites 756, 757, and 758: implications for the origin and evolution of Ninetyeast Ridge. In: Weissel, J., Peirce, J., Taylor, E., Alt, J., et al. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 121. College Station, TX: Ocean Drilling Program, pp. 611–659.
Frey, F. A., McNaughton, N. J., Nelson, D. R., Delaeter, J. R. & Duncan, R. A. (1996). Petrogenesis of the Bunbury basalt, western Australia: interaction between the Kerguelen plume and Gondwana lithosphere? Earth and Planetary Science Letters 144, 163–183.
Frey, F. A., Coffin, M. F., Wallace, P. J., Weis, D., Zhao, X., Wise, S. W., et al. (2000). Origin and evolution of a submarine large igneous province: the Kerguelen Plateau and Broken Ridge, southern Indian Ocean. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 176, 73–89.
Frey, F. A., Weis, D., Borisova, A. Yu. & Xu, G. (2002). Involvement of continental crust in the formation of the Cretaceous Kerguelen Plateau: new perspectives from ODP Leg 120 sites. Journal of Petrology 43, 1207–1239.
Garnero, E. J. (2000). Heterogeneity of the lowermost mantle. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28, 509–537.[Web of Science]
Gladczenko, T. P. & Coffin, M. F. (2001). Kerguelen Plateau crustal structure and basin formation from seismic and gravity data. Journal of Geophysical Research 106, 16583–16601.
Gopala Rao, D., Krishna, K. S. & Sar, D. (1997). Crustal evolution and sedimentation history of the Bay of Bengal since the Cretaceous. Journal of Geophysical Research 102, 17747–17768.
Gradstein, F. M., Agterberg, F. P., Ogg, J. G., Hardenbol, J., van Veen, P., Thierry, J. & Huang, Z. (1994). A Mesozoic time scale. Journal of Geophysical Research 99, 24051–24074.[Web of Science]
Grégoire, M., Mattielli, N., Nicollet, C., Cottin, J.-Y., Leyrit, H., Weis, D., Shimizu, N. & Giret, A. (1994). Oceanic mafic granulite xenoliths from the Kerguelen archipelago. Nature 367, 360–363.
Grevemeyer, I., Flueh, E. R., Reichert, C., Bialas, J., Klaschen, D. & Kopp, C. (2001). Crustal architecture and deep structure of the Ninetyeast Ridge hotspot trail from active-source ocean bottom seismology. Geophysical Journal International 144, 414–431.
Hassler, D. & Shimizu, N. (1998). Osmium isotopic evidence for Precambrian lithospheric mantle beneath the Kerguelen Islands, southern Indian Ocean. Science 280, 418–421.
Hekinian, R. (1974). Petrology of the Ninetyeast Ridge (Indian Ocean) compared to other aseismic ridges. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 43, 125–147.
Ingle, S., Weis, D., Scoates, J. S. & Frey, F. (2002). Relationship between the early Kerguelen plume and continental flood basalts of the paleo-Eastern Gondwanan margins. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 97, 35–50.
Ishihara, T., Brown, B. & Joshima, M. (2000). M-series magnetic anomalies in the Enderby Basin. EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union 81, F1130.
Kent, R. W. & McKenzie, D. P. (1994). Rare-earth element inversion models for basalts associated with the Kerguelen mantle plume. Mineralogical Magazine 58A, 471–472.
Kent, R. W., Storey, M. & Saunders, A. D. (1992). Large igneous provinces: sites of plume impact or plume incubation. Geology 20, 891–894.
Kent, R. W., Saunders, A. D., Kempton, P. D. & Ghose, N. C. (1997). Rajmahal basalts, eastern India: mantle sources and melt distribution at a volcanic rifted margin. In: Mahoney, J. J. & Coffin, M. F. (eds) Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism. Geophysical Monograph, American Geophysical Union 100, 145–182.
Kent, R. W., Kelley, S. P. & Pringle, M. S. (1998). Mineralogy and 40Ar/39Ar geochronology of orangeites (Group II kimberlites) from the Damodar Valley, eastern India. Mineralogical Magazine 62, 313–323.[Abstract]
Kent, R. W., Pringle, M. S., Müller, R. D., Saunders, A. D. & Ghose, N. C. (2002). 40Ar/39Ar geochronology of the Rajmahal basalts, India, and their relationship to the Kerguelen Plateau. Journal of Petrology 43, 1141–1153.
Könnecke, L. K., Coffin, M. F., Charvis, P., Symonds, P. A., Ramsay, D. & Bernadel, G. (1997). Crustal structure of Elan Bank, Kerguelen Plateau. EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union 76, F712.
Lawver, L. A., Gahagan, L. M. & Coffin, M. F. (1992). The development of paleoseaways around Antarctica. In: Kennett, J. P. & Warnke, D. A. (eds) The Antarctic Paleoenvironment: a Perspective on Global Change. Antarctic Research Series, American Geophysical Union 56, 7–30.
Lawver, L. A., Coffin, M. F., Dalziel, I. W. D., Gahagan, L. M. & Campbell, D. A. (2001). The PLATES 2001 Atlas of Plate Reconstructions. Progress Report 260-0801. Austin: University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, 83 pp.
Macdougall, J. D. (ed.) (1988). Continental Flood Basalts. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 341 pp.
Mahoney, J. J., Macdougall, J. D., Lugmair, G. W. & Gopalan, K. (1983). Kerguelen hot spot source for Rajmahal Traps and Ninetyeast Ridge? Nature 303, 385–389.
Mahoney, J. J., Jones, W. B., Frey, F. A., Salters, V. J. M., Pyle, D. G. & Davies, H. L. (1995). Geochemical characteristics of lavas from Broken Ridge, the Naturaliste Plateau and southernmost Kerguelen Plateau: Cretaceous plateau volcanism in the Southeast Indian Ocean. Chemical Geology 120, 315–345.[Web of Science]
Markl, R. G. (1974). Evidence for the breakup of eastern Gondwanaland by the Early Cretaceous. Nature 251, 196–200.
Markl, R. G. (1978). Further evidence for the Early Cretaceous breakup of Gondwanaland off southwestern Australia. Marine Geology 26, 41–48.[Web of Science]
Marzoli, A., Renne, P. R., Piccirillo, E. M., Ernesto, M., Bellieni, G. & De Min, A. (1999). Extensive 200-million-year-old continental flood basalts of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province. Science 284, 616–618.
Mattielli, N., Weis, D., Scoates, J. S., Shimizu, N., Mennessier, J.-P., Grégoire, M., Cottin, J.-Y. & Giret, A. (1999). Evolution of heterogeneous lithospheric mantle in a plume environment beneath the Kerguelen Archipelago. Journal of Petrology 40, 1721–1744.
McKenzie, D. & O’Nions, R. K. (1991). Partial melt distributions from inversion of rare-earth element concentrations. Journal of Petrology 32, 1021–1091.
McKenzie, D. & O’Nions, R. K. (1995). The source regions of ocean island basalts. Journal of Petrology 36, 133–159.
Morgan, W. J. (1971). Convection plumes in the lower mantle. Nature 230, 42–43.
Morgan, W. J. (1972). Convection plumes and plate motions. AAPG Bulletin 56, 203–213.[Abstract]
Müller, R. D., Royer, J.-Y. & Lawver, L. A. (1993). Revised plate motions relative to the hotspots from combined Atlantic and Indian Ocean hotspot tracks. Geology 16, 275–278.
Müller, R. D., Gaina, C., Roest, W. R. & Hansen, D. L. (2001). A recipe for microcontinent formation. Geology 29, 203–206.
Neal, C. R., Mahoney, J. J. & Chazey, W. J., III (2002). Mantle sources and the highly variable role of continental lithosphere in basalt petrogenesis of the Kerguelen Plateau and Broken Ridge LIP: results from ODP Leg 183. Journal of Petrology 43, 1177–1205.
Nicolaysen, K., Frey, F. A., Hodges, K. V., Weis, D. & Giret, A. (2000). Ar-40/Ar-39 geochronology of flood basalts from the Kerguelen Archipelago, southern Indian Ocean: implications for Cenozoic eruption rates of the Kerguelen plume. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 174, 313–328.
Nicolaysen, K., Bowring, S., Frey, F., Weis, D., Ingle, S., Pringle, M. S. & Coffin, M. F. (2001). Provenance of Proterozoic garnet–biotite gneiss recovered from Elan Bank, Kerguelen Plateau, southern Indian Ocean. Geology 29, 235–238.
Nougier, J., Pawlowski, D. & Cantagrel, J. M. (1983). Chrono-spatial evolution of the volcanic activity in southeastern Kerguelen (T.A.A.F.). In: Oliver, R. L., James, P. R. & Jago, J. B. (eds) Antarctic Earth Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 640–645.
Olson, P. (1990). Hot spots, swells and mantle plumes. In: Ryan, M. P. (ed.) Magma Transport and Storage. London: John Wiley, pp. 33–51.
Operto, S. & Charvis, P. (1995). Kerguelen Plateau: a volcanic passive margin fragment? Geology 23, 137–140.
Operto, S. & Charvis, P. (1996). Deep structure of the southern Kerguelen Plateau (southern Indian Ocean) from ocean bottom seismometer wide-angle seismic data. Journal of Geophysical Research 101, 25077–25103.
Pringle, M. S. (1993). Age progressive volcanism in the Musicians Seamounts: a test of the hot spot hypothesis for the Late Cretaceous Pacific. In: Pringle, M. S., Sager, W. W., Sliter, W. V. & Stein, S. (eds) The Mesozoic Pacific: Geology, Tectonics, and Volcanism. Geophysical Monograph, American Geophysical Union 77, 187–215.
Ramana, M. V., Nair, R. R., Sarma, K. V. L. N. S., Ramprasad, T., Krishna, K. S., Subrahmanyam, V., D’Cruz, M., Subrahmanyam, C., Paul, J., Subrahmanyam, A. S. & Chandra Sekhar, D. V. (1994). Mesozoic anomalies in the Bay of Bengal. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 121, 469–475.
Richards, M. A., Duncan, R. A. & Courtillot, V. E. (1989). Flood basalts and hot spot tracks: plume heads and tails. Science 246, 103–107.
Roeser, H. A., Fritsch, J. & Hinz, K. (1996). The development of the crust off Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica. In: Storey, B. C., King, E. C. & Livermore, R. A. (eds) Weddell Sea Tectonics and Gondwana Break-up. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 108, 243–264.
Rotstein, Y., Munschy, M. & Bernard, A. (2001). The Kerguelen province revisited: additional constraints on the early development of the Southeast Indian Ocean. Marine Geophysical Researches 22, 81–100.[Web of Science]
Royer, J.-Y. & Coffin, M. F. (1992). Jurassic to Eocene plate tectonic reconstructions in the Kerguelen Plateau region. In: Wise, S. W., Jr & Schlich, R. et al. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 120. College Station, TX: Ocean Drilling Program, pp. 917–930.
Royer, J.-Y. & Rollet, N. (1997). Plate tectonic setting of the Tasmanian region. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 44, 543–560.[Web of Science]
Royer, J.-Y. & Sandwell, D. T. (1989). Evolution of the eastern Indian Ocean since the Late Cretaceous: constraints from Geosat altimetry. Journal of Geophysical Research 94, 13755–13782.
Royer, J. Y., Sclater, J. G., Sandwell, D. T., Cande, S. C., Schlich, R., Munschy, M., Dyment, J., Fisher, R. L., Müller, R. D., Coffin, M. F., Patriat, P. & Bergh, H. W. (1992). Indian Ocean plate reconstructions since the Late Jurassic. In: Duncan, R. A., Rea, D. K., Kidd, R. B., von Rad, U. & Weissel, J. K. (eds) Synthesis of Results from Scientific Drilling in the Indian Ocean. Geophysical Monograph, American Geophysical Union 70, 471–475.
Sandwell, D. T. & Smith, W. H. F. (1997). Marine gravity anomaly from Geosat and ERS 1 satellite altimetry. Journal of Geophysical Research 102, 10039–10054.
Saunders, A. D., Storey, M., Gibson, I. L., Leat, P., Hergt, J. & Thompson, R. N. (1991). Chemical and isotopic constraints on the origin of basalts from Ninetyeast Ridge, Indian Ocean: results from DSDP Legs 22 and 26 and ODP Leg 121. In: Weissel, J., Peirce, J., Taylor, E., Alt, J., et al. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 121. College Station, TX: Ocean Drilling Program, pp. 559–590.
Saunders, A. D., Storey, M., Kent, R. W. & Norry, M. J. (1992). Consequences of plume–lithosphere interactions. In: Storey, B. C., Alabaster, T. & Pankhurst, R. J. (eds) Magmatism and the Causes of Continental Break-up. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 68, 41–60.
Saunders, A. D., Storey, M., Kent, R. W. & Gibson, I. L. (1994). Magmatic activity associated with the Kerguelen–Heard plume: implications for plume dynamics. Mémoire de la Société Géologique de France 166, 61–72.
Schubert, G. & Sandwell, D. (1989). Crustal volumes of the continents and of oceanic and continental submarine plateaus. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 92, 234–246.[Web of Science]
Singer, B. S. & Pringle, M. S. (1996). Age and duration of the Matuyama–Bruhnes Geomagnetic Polarity Transition from 40Ar/39Ar incremental-heating analyses of lavas. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 139, 47–61.
Sleep, N. H. (1996). Lateral flow of hot plume material ponded at sublithospheric depths. Journal of Geophysical Research 101, 28065–28083.[Web of Science]
Sleep, N. H. (1997). Lateral flow and ponding of starting plume material. Journal of Geophysical Research 102, 10001–10012.[Web of Science]
Stagg, H. M. J. (1985). The structure and origin of Prydz Bay and MacRobertson Shelf, East Antarctica. Tectonophysics 114, 315–340.[Web of Science]
Stagg, H. M. J. & Willcox, J. B. (1992). A case for Australia–Antarctica separation in the Neocomian. Tectonophysics 210, 21–32.
Stein, M. & Hofmann, A. W. (1994). Mantle plumes and episodic crustal growth. Nature 372, 63–68.
Steinberger, B. (2000). Plumes in a convecting mantle: models and observations for individual hotspots. Journal of Geophysical Research 105, 11127–11152.
Steinberger, B. & O’Connell, R. J. (1998). Advection of plumes in mantle flow: implications for hotspot motion, mantle viscosity and plume distribution. Geophysical Journal International 132, 412–434.[Web of Science]
Storey, M., Saunders, A. D., Tarney, J., Gibson, I. L., Norry, M. J., Thirlwall, M. F., Leat, P., Thompson, R. N. & Menzies, M. A. (1989). Contamination of Indian Ocean asthenosphere by the Kerguelen–Heard mantle plume. Nature 338, 574–576.
Storey, M., Kent, R., Saunders, A. D., Salters, V. J., Hergt, J., Whitechurch, H., Sevigny, J. H., Thirlwall, M. F., Leat, P., Ghose, N. C. & Gifford, M. (1992). Lower Cretaceous volcanic rocks on continental margins and their relationship to the Kerguelen Plateau. In: Wise, S. W., Jr, Schlich, R., et al. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 120. College Station, TX: Ocean Drilling Program, pp. 33–53.
Subrahmanyam, C., Thakur, N. K., Gangadhara Rao, T., Khanna, R., Ramana, M. V. & Subrahmanyam, V. (1999). Tectonics of the Bay of Bengal: new insights from satellite-gravity and ship-borne geophysical data. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 171, 237–251.[Web of Science]
Symonds, P. A., Planke, S., Frey, O. & Skogseid, J. (1998). Volcanic evolution of the Western Australian continental margin and its implications for basin development. In: Purcell, P. G. & Purcell, R. R. (eds) The Sedimentary Basin of Western Australia 2. Proceedings of the Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Symposium, Perth, Western Australia, 1998, pp. 33–54.
Thompson, R. N. & Gibson, S. A. (1991). Subcontinental mantle plumes, hotspots and pre-existing thinspots. Journal of the Geological Society, London 148, 973–977.
Weis, D. & Giret, A. (1994). Kerguelen plutonic complexes: Sr, Nd, Pb isotopic study and inferences about their sources, ages and geodynamic setting. Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France 166, 47–59.
Weis, D., Frey, F. A., Saunders, A. D., Gibson, I. & Leg 121 Shipboard Scientific Party (1991). Ninetyeast Ridge (Indian Ocean): a 5000 km record of a Dupal mantle plume. Geology 19, 99–102.
Weis, D., Frey, F. A., Leyrit, H. & Gautier, I. (1993). Kerguelen Archipelago revisited: geochemical and isotopic study of the SE Province lavas. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 118, 101–119.
Weis, D., Frey, F. A., Giret, A. & Cantagrel, J. M. (1998). Geochemical characteristics of the youngest volcano (Mount Ross) in the Kerguelen Archipelago: inferences for magma flux and composition of the Kerguelen Plume. Journal of Petrology 39, 973–994.
Weis, D., Ingle, S., Damasceno, D., Frey, F. A., Nicolaysen, K. & Barling, J. (2001). Origin of continental components in Indian Ocean basalts: evidence from Elan Bank (Kerguelen Plateau, ODP Leg 183, Site 1137). Geology 29, 147–150.
Weis, D., Frey, F. A., Schlich, R., Schaming, M., Montigny, R., Damasceno, D., Mattielli, N., Nicolaysen, K. & Scoates, J. S. (2002). Trace of the Kerguelen mantle plume: evidence from seamounts between the Kerguelen Archipelago and Heard Island, Indian Ocean. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems (G3) (in press).
White, R. S. (1993). Melt production rates in mantle plumes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A 342, 137–153.
White, R. S. & McKenzie, D. (1989). Magmatism at rift zones: the generation of volcanic continental margins and flood basalts. Journal of Geophysical Research 94, 7685–7729.
White, R. S. & McKenzie, D. (1995). Mantle plumes and flood basalts. Journal of Geophysical Research 100, 17543–17585.
White, R. S., McKenzie, D. & O’Nions, R. K. (1992). Oceanic crustal thickness from seismic measurements and rare earth element inversions. Journal of Geophysical Research 97, 19683–19715.
Whitechurch, H., Montigny, R., Sevigny, J., Storey, M. & Salters, V. (1992). K–Ar and 40Ar/39Ar ages of central Kerguelen Plateau basalts. In: Wise, S. W., Jr, Schlich, R., et al. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 120. College Station, TX: Ocean Drilling Program, pp. 71–77.
Wijbrans, J. R., Pringle, M. S., Koppers, A. P. & Scheveers, R. (1995). Argon geochronology of small samples using the Vulkaan argon laserprobe. Proceedings of the Koninklijke Nederlandse Akadamie van Wetenschappen 98, 185–218.
Wilson, J. T. (1963). A possible origin of the Hawaiian Island. Canadian Journal of Physics 41, 863–870.[Web of Science]
Wilson, J. T. (1965). Evidence from ocean islands suggesting movement in the Earth. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series A 258, 145–167.
Wilson, M. & Patterson, R. (2001) Intra-plate magmatism related to hot fingers in the upper mantle: evidence from the Tertiary–Quaternary volcanic province of western and central Europe. In: Ernst, R. & Buchan, K. (eds) Mantle Plumes: their Identification through Time. Geological Society of America Special Paper 352, 37–58.
CiteULike 
Connotea 
Del.icio.us What's this?
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  D.-C. Zhu, S.-L. Chung, X.-X. Mo, Z.-D. Zhao, Y. Niu, B. Song, and Y.-H. Yang The 132 Ma Comei-Bunbury large igneous province: Remnants identified in present-day southeastern Tibet and southwestern Australia Geology, July 1, 2009; 37(7): 583 - 586. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 L. Melluso, H. C. Sheth, J. J. Mahoney, V. Morra, C. M. Petrone, and M. Storey Correlations between silicic volcanic rocks of the St Mary's Islands (southwestern India) and eastern Madagascar: implications for Late Cretaceous India-Madagascar reconstructions Journal of the Geological Society, January 1, 2009; 166(2): 283 - 294. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. Annell, J. S. Scoates, D. Weis, and A. Giret PETROLOGY OF FLOOD BASALTS AT THE THOLEIITIC ALKALIC TRANSITION AND PHENOCRYST COMPOSITIONS, MT. MARION DUFRESNE, KERGUELEN ARCHIPELAGO, SOUTHERN INDIAN OCEAN Can Mineral, August 1, 2007; 45(4): 809 - 835. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. Takashima, S.-i. Sano, Y. Iba, and H. Nishi The first Pacific record of the Late Aptian warming event Journal of the Geological Society, March 1, 2007; 164(2): 333 - 339. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. Yamamoto, J. P. Morgan, and W. J. Morgan Global plume-fed asthenosphere flow--II: Application to the geochemical segmentation of mid-ocean ridges Geological Society of America Special Papers, January 1, 2007; 430(0): 189 - 208. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. K. Beutel and D. L. Anderson Ridge-crossing seamount chains: A nonthermal approach Geological Society of America Special Papers, January 1, 2007; 430(0): 375 - 386. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. K. Srivastava and A. K. Sinha Nd and Sr isotope systematics and geochemistry of a plume-related Early Cretaceous alkaline-mafic-ultramafic igneous complex from Jasra, Shillong plateau, northeastern India Geological Society of America Special Papers, January 1, 2007; 430(0): 815 - 830. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H.-F. Zhang Temporal and spatial distribution of Mesozoic mafic magmatism in the North China Craton and implications for secular lithospheric evolution Geological Society, London, Special Publications, January 1, 2007; 280(1): 35 - 54. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. G. Direen, I. Borissova, H. M. J. Stagg, J. B. Colwell, and P. A. Symonds Nature of the continent ocean transition zone along the southern Australian continental margin: a comparison of the Naturaliste Plateau, SW Australia, and the central Great Australian Bight sectors Geological Society, London, Special Publications, January 1, 2007; 282(1): 239 - 263. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. P. Schwarz, S. Fuller, S. M. Tierney, and S. J. B. Cooper Molecular Phylogenetics of the Exoneurine Allodapine Bees Reveal an Ancient and Puzzling Dispersal from Africa to Australia Syst Biol, February 1, 2006; 55(1): 31 - 45. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 A. C. KERR, J. TARNEY, P. D. KEMPTON, M. PRINGLE, and A. NIVIA Mafic Pegmatites Intruding Oceanic Plateau Gabbros and Ultramafic Cumulates from Bolivar, Colombia: Evidence for a 'Wet' Mantle Plume? J. Petrology, September 1, 2004; 45(9): 1877 - 1906. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. A. DUNCAN A Time Frame for Construction of the Kerguelen Plateau and Broken Ridge J. Petrology, July 1, 2002; 43(7): 1109 - 1119. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. R. NEAL, J. J. MAHONEY, and W. J. CHAZEY III Mantle Sources and the Highly Variable Role of Continental Lithosphere in Basalt Petrogenesis of the Kerguelen Plateau and Broken Ridge LIP: Results from ODP Leg 183 J. Petrology, July 1, 2002; 43(7): 1177 - 1205. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
F. A. FREY, D. WEIS, A. YU. BORISOVA, and G. XU Involvement of Continental Crust in the Formation of the Cretaceous Kerguelen Plateau: New Perspectives from ODP Leg 120 Sites J. Petrology, July 1, 2002; 43(7): 1207 - 1239. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. INGLE, D. WEIS, and F. A. FREY Indian Continental Crust Recovered from Elan Bank, Kerguelen Plateau (ODP Leg 183, Site 1137) J. Petrology, July 1, 2002; 43(7): 1241 - 1257. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. KIEFFER, N. T. ARNDT, and D. WEIS A Bimodal Alkalic Shield Volcano on Skiff Bank: its Place in the Evolution of the Kerguelen Plateau J. Petrology, July 1, 2002; 43(7): 1259 - 1286. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. J. WALLACE Volatiles in Submarine Basaltic Glasses from the Northern Kerguelen Plateau (ODP Site 1140): Implications for Source Region Compositions, Magmatic Processes, and Plateau Subsidence J. Petrology, July 1, 2002; 43(7): 1311 - 1326. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. MATTIELLI, D. WEIS, J. BLICHERT-TOFT, and F. ALBAREDE Hf Isotope Evidence for a Miocene Change in the Kerguelen Mantle Plume Composition J. Petrology, July 1, 2002; 43(7): 1327 - 1339. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||