Journal of Petrology Advance Access originally published online on August 12, 2004
Journal of Petrology 2004 45(10):2067-2099; doi:10.1093/petrology/egh076
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Journal of Petrology 45(10) © Oxford University Press 2004; all rights reserved
Petrogenesis of Tholeiitic Lavas from the Submarine Hana Ridge, Haleakala Volcano, Hawaii
1 EARTH AND PLANETARY SCIENCES, TOKYO INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 2-12-1 OOKAYAMA, MEGUROKU, 152-8551, JAPAN
2 EARTHQUAKE RESEARCH INSTITUTE, THE UNIVERSITY OF TOKYO, 1-1 YAYOI, BUNKYO-KU, TOKYO 113-0032, JAPAN
3 DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII, HONOLULU, HI 96822, USA
RECEIVED JUNE 2, 2003; ACCEPTED JUNE 8, 2004
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONSAMPLE LOCALITY AND PETROGRAPHYANALYTICAL TECHNIQUESRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSUPPLEMENTARY DATAREFERENCES |
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Hana Ridge, the longest submarine rift zone in the Hawaiian island chain, extending from Maui 140 km to the ESE, has a complex morphology compared with other Hawaiian rift zones. A total of 108 rock specimens have been collected from the submarine Hana Ridge by six submersible dives. All of the rocks (76 bulk rocks analyzed) are tholeiitic basalts or picrites. Their major element compositions, together with distinctively low Zr/Nb, Sr/Nb, and Ba/Nb, overlap those of Kilauea lavas. In contrast, the lavas forming the subaerial Honomanu shield are intermediate in composition between those of Kilauea and Mauna Loa. The compositional characteristics of the lavas imply that clinopyroxene and garnet were important residual phases during partial melting. The compositions of olivine and glass (formerly melt) inclusions imply that regardless of textural type (euhedral, subhedral–undeformed, deformed) olivine crystallized from host magmas. Using the most forsteritic olivine (Fo90·6) and partition coefficients
and 
, the primary magma composition is constrained to have 
16·7% MgO and 8·4 wt % CaO. Modeling calculations using MELTS show that olivine first crystallized at 1380–1390°C and 0·1–0·3 GPa, under slightly hydrous conditions (0·5–1 wt % water). KEY WORDS: Hawaii; Haleakala volcano; submarine Hana Ridge; petrogenesis; tholeiitic lavas
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONSAMPLE LOCALITY AND PETROGRAPHYANALYTICAL TECHNIQUESRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSUPPLEMENTARY DATAREFERENCES |
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Haleakala volcano on Maui Island, the third largest volcano of the youngest edifices formed by the Hawaiian hotspot, has a well-developed shield that is overlapped by post-shield and rejuvenated stages. Four formations have been recognized in Haleakala volcano (Stearns & Macdonald, 1942
; Macdonald, 1978) from the oldest to youngest: Honomanu Formation, shield-building tholeiite and minor interbedded alkalic basalts; Kumuiliahi Formation, transitional alkali basalts and hawaiite; Kula-postshield Formation, alkali-series lavas; Hana Formation, rejuvenated alkalic lavas. However, the shield- building Honomanu lavas are exposed only along the northern coast and in deep valleys on the northern and southern flanks of Haleakala. Most of the subaerial shield is covered by postshield and rejuvenated stages alkalic lavas. The exposed Honomanu lavas represent only the final stage of Haleakala shield building, and their composition may have already shifted to transitional and alkalic basalts (Chen & Frey, 1985; Chen et al., 1990, 1991).
Many studies have been carried out on the subaerial lavas of Haleakala volcano (e.g. Stearns & Macdonald, 1942; Chen & Frey, 1983, 1985; Macdonald et al. 1983; West & Leeman, 1987, 1994; Chen et al., 1990, 1991; Sherrod et al., 2003). However, until very recently, little work has been done on the submarine portion of Haleakala volcano. Except for a few dredges on the submarine Hana Ridge (the submarine East Rift Zone of Haleakala volcano; Moore et al., 1990), the main shield-building stage of the huge Haleakala volcano has been relatively unstudied. Moore et al. (1990) mapped the submarine Hana Ridge with GLORIA, and discussed subsidence, the age of the slope, and measured glass rim compositions of some dredged samples. Only a few geochemical analyses have been reported for the Hana Ridge dredged samples (e.g. Chen et al., 1991; Wagner et al., 1998). Clague et al. (2000) discussed the formation of submarine flat-topped volcanic cones including some from Hana Ridge. A detailed bathymetric map of the submarine Hana Ridge was acquired for the first time during the JAMSTEC Cruise in 1999 by Smith et al. (2002), who discussed its structure, volcanic morphology, and processes of construction.
During the joint Japan–US Hawaii cruises in 2001 and 2002, six dives were carried out on the submarine Hana Ridge covering its deepest portion (5300 m deep) to the shallow ridge crest (2200 m deep) (see Fig. 1). This paper reports the petrology and geochemistry of 108 rock specimens recovered from the submarine Hana Ridge, representing the main shield-building stage of Haleakala volcano. A significant new result is that the lavas forming Haleakala's main shield stage are very similar to the lavas forming Kilauea volcano in major and trace element composition. In contrast, the lavas forming the subaerial Honomanu portion are intermediate in composition between those of Kilauea and Mauna Loa. We also estimate the primary magma composition using the partition coefficients Kol-meltDFe-Mg and D*ol-meltCoa using the most forsteritic olivine. The compositional characteristics of the submarine Hana Ridge lavas imply that clinopyroxene and garnet were important residual phases during partial melting in the magma source region.
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SAMPLE LOCALITY AND PETROGRAPHY |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONSAMPLE LOCALITY AND PETROGRAPHYANALYTICAL TECHNIQUESRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSUPPLEMENTARY DATAREFERENCES |
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The 140 km long submarine Hana Ridge (Fig. 1), extending from the SE corner of Maui Island (Hana village), is the largest identified rift zone in Hawaii (Moore et al., 1990
). Hana Ridge is twice as long and nearly twice as wide as Puna Ridge, the submarine east rift zone of Kilauea volcano. Compared with other submarine rifts, Hana Ridge has complex topography comprising at least three partially overlapped ridge axes and a large (22 km wide) arcuate structure at its east end. The shallower portion of the Hana Ridge with smooth topography is the subsided subaerial volcanic edifice capped by a series of reefs (Moore et al., 1990). Along the western end of the Hana Ridge, a series of point-topped cones, interpreted as postshield-stage alkalic lavas, are located close to the shore (1000–1400 m water depth) (Reynolds et al., 1998; Clague et al., 2000). Farther down the rift, there are numerous flat-topped pancake cones composed of tholeiitic lavas, probably erupted during the shield-building stage (Clague et al., 2000). Smith et al. (2002) identified 73 volcanic constructions along the broad 8–13 km wide crest of the distal rift zone (see Smith et al., 2002, fig. 5c).
Chen et al. (1991) studied a stratigraphic section of Haleakala volcano. This 250 m section of Honomanu basalts exposed in Honomanu Gulch consists of intercalated tholeiitic and alkalic lavas with K–Ar ages from 1·1 to 0·97 Ma. These ages may represent the end of the Haleakala shield stage; the submarine Hana Ridge lavas would be older than the Honomanu basalts.
During the 2001 and 2002 JAMSTEC Cruises, six dives (K212, K214, K216, S686, S687, and S691) were conducted on the Hana Ridge. Local bathymetric maps of each dive site are summarized in Figs 1 and 2. Two dives were carried out inside the arcuate structure (K212 and S686), and three dives were conducted on the flank of the Hana Ridge (K214, K216 and S691). In addition, two cones formed on the shoulder of the Hana Ridge were visited by dive S687. Dives K216, S687 and S691 were carried out on the northernmost rift segment, whereas K214 was on the southern rift.
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The lavas from the submarine Hana Ridge vary dramatically in mineralogy, ranging from weakly phyric (<2 vol. % phenocrysts) to extremely olivine phyric (up to 40 vol. %). The modal mineral compositions of the lavas are variable, but there are only four phenocryst assemblages: (1) olivine; (2) olivine + augite; (3) olivine + augite + plagioclase; (4) olivine + augite + plagioclase + orthopyroxene. Olivine occurs as phenocrysts and microphenocrysts in all the samples. The population of olivine phenocrysts was subdivided into three types: euhedral (>1 mm wide with euhedral shape); subhedral– undeformed (>1 mm wide with subhedral shape but no deformation); deformed (>1 mm wide with subhedral shape, at least one subgrain boundary or resorbed margins). Microphenocrysts are 0·1–1·0 mm wide and usually euhedral in shape.
Phenocrysts other than olivine are usually <1 vol. %. Some clinopyroxene forms glomeroporphyritic clusters with plagioclase. Plagioclase is generally subhedral to euhedral, although rarely, rounded or embayed crystals are present. Both types of plagioclase occur as glomerocrysts with augite. Some plagioclase contains glass (formerly melt) inclusions. Many of these glass inclusions also contain gas bubbles or spinel crystals, or both. Diameters of the melt inclusions range from several to several hundred micrometers. Orthopyroxene is rare, elongated and embayed, and some orthopyroxene grains host plagioclase inclusions.
Quenched glassy rims are found on some pillow lavas. Normally, the texture of the groundmass changes gradually from glass, microlites of plagioclase and hyalopilitic texture to intersertal or intergranular in the pillow interior. Also, the color of the glass changes from yellow–brown (sideromelane) in pillow rims to black (tachylite) in the pillow interior. The groundmass is commonly composed of magnetite, plagioclase, clinopyroxene and glass (black, tachylite), and has hyalopilitic, hyalophitic, intersertal, or intergranular textures.
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ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONSAMPLE LOCALITY AND PETROGRAPHYANALYTICAL TECHNIQUESRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSUPPLEMENTARY DATAREFERENCES |
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For the bulk-rock chemical analysis, least altered rocks were chosen after thin-section inspection. The samples were wrapped with plastic film and broken into chips of several millimeters size using a hydraulic press, and then the chips were carefully handpicked to avoid weathered parts. The fresh chips were washed in deionized water and reduced to powder using an agate mortar and pestle, and an agate ring mill. The powders were placed in a glass bottle with deionized water in an ultrasonic bath for 10 min, and then the water was removed carefully by hand after the particles of the powder had settled. This cycle was repeated three times. Rock powder (400 mg, dried at 110°C for 24 h) was mixed with 4 g of Li2B4O7 flux and fused at 1200°C for 7 min in a Pt crucible for analysis of major elements. Because the fusion takes place in air, the samples were oxidized, so total iron is reported as Fe2O3. The whole-rock major element compositions were determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) with a Rigaku-3550 spectrometer equipped with a Rh X-ray tube at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. Analytical precision for the XRF analyses is as described by Shinozaki et al. (2002)
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For analysis of trace elements, XRF and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma source mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) at the Earthquake Research Institute, the University of Tokyo, were used. A split of 1·8 g of rock powder, prepared as above, was mixed with 3·6 g of lithium metaborate–tetraborate flux and 0·54 g of lithium nitrate and fused at 1200°C to make a glass bead. Major and some trace elements were analyzed by XRF according to the procedure described by Tani et al. (2002). Ba, Ta, Hf, U, Th, Pb and rare earth elements (REE) were determined by LA-ICP-MS following the procedures described by Orihashi & Hirata (2003). Analytical uncertainty is 10% for Gd, <5% for other elements; for all of the trace elements replicate analyses were within 3–5% difference.
Compositions of olivine, glass rims on pillow lavas, and glassy inclusions enclosed in olivine phenocrysts were analyzed by electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) with a JEOL-8800 instrument at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. A defocused electron beam (3 µm for glassy inclusions, 10 µm for pillow glass rim) was used for glass analyses. The beam current was 1·20 x 10–8 A. Counting times were 20 s for major elements (Si, Al, Ca, Mg and Fe) and 30–60 s for minor elements (Mn, P, K, Ti, and S). Na was analyzed first in each analysis for 10 s to minimize its possible loss during analysis. To monitor machine drift, an internal glass standard (JB-2) was analyzed before and after each batch analysis. For minor elements in olivine (i.e. Ca, Ni and Mn), a longer counting time (50–60 s) was used. Analytical uncertainty is 1–2% for major elements, and 5–10% for minor elements.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONSAMPLE LOCALITY AND PETROGRAPHYANALYTICAL TECHNIQUESRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSUPPLEMENTARY DATAREFERENCES |
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Olivine compositions
By EPMA we analyzed 31, 20, and 21 core compositions of olivine with euhedral, subhedral–undeformed, and deformed textures, respectively (Table 1, Fig. 3a and c). In addition, we analyzed the compositions of cores from about 350 unclassified olivine phenocrysts (given in the Electronic Appendix, which may be downloaded from http://www.petrology.oupjournals.org; Fig. 3b). Olivine has a wide range of core compositions: the Mg/(Mg + Fe) (Mg-number) (cation ratio) ranges from 0·783 to 0·906 (Fig. 3b), and CaO ranges from 0·14 to 0·33 wt % (Fig. 3b). The CaO contents of olivine from the submarine Hana Ridge lavas are very similar to those of Kilauea (Norman & Garcia, 1999
), and significantly different from those in Hawaiian xenoliths (normally, CaO contents from Hawaiian xenoliths are <0·15 wt %; Sen, 1988; Garcia et al., 1995; Norman & Garcia, 1999) (Fig. 3a and b). The NiO contents of olivine range from 0·16 to 0·69 wt %. With increasing Mg-number, NiO contents of olivine increase. These trends in CaO (wt %) and NiO (wt %) of olivine phenocrysts as a function of their Mg-number show no apparent correlation with the crystal type (see Fig. 3a and c).
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Major element compositions of bulk rocks and pillow glass rims
All of the submarine Hana Ridge lavas analyzed in this study (76 bulk rocks analyzed; Table 2) are fresh in thin section. The K2O/P2O5 of Hawaiian tholeiitic basalts has been used to evaluate the effect of subaerial weathering because K is easily leached whereas P is not (e.g. Frey et al., 1994
). Except for sample K216-12B, all the studied rocks from the submarine Hana Ridge have K2O/P2O5 >1 (Fig. 4), indicative of freshness. The K216-12B sample has lower K2O/P2O5 (1) and a lower SiO2 content compared with other submarine Hana Ridge lavas (Fig. 6), implying that this sample was slightly affected by low-temperature alteration. All of the samples from the six submarine dive localities are tholeiitic basalts or picrites (Fig. 5) with a compositional range from 6·6 to 28·9 wt % MgO, and from 43·3 to 50·4 wt % SiO2 (Fig. 6a). Except for Fe2O3, all major oxides increase with decreasing MgO and show little scatter. At a given MgO in Fig. 6, other oxide contents are similar to those of lavas from Kilauea. The ratios of Al2O3/CaO and TiO2/Na2O of submarine lavas are also similar to those of Kilauea lavas (Fig. 6) and show no correlation with water depth and dive locality (Fig. 7). Some lavas from the northern lineation (S691-4, 5A, B) have lower SiO2 and higher K2O + Na2O, and plot as transitional basalt (Figs 5 and 6). However, their Al2O3/CaO and TiO2/Na2O are identical to those of other submarine Hana Ridge rocks (Fig. 6h).
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) are indicated.
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Relative to these submarine lavas, the compositions of most subaerial Honomanu lavas have been extensively modified by subaerial weathering. Normally, subaerial lavas tend to have lower SiO2 and K2O, higher Al2O3 and Fe2O3, and K2O/P2O5 <1 at a given MgO content (Figs 4 and 6) (Chen et al., 1991
; Frey et al., 1994). The TiO2/Na2O ratios in some subaerial lavas are higher than in submarine lavas, and plot between the Mauna Loa and Kilauea fields. Some subaerial samples (HO-3, HO-21, and C122) are less altered, having K2O/P2O5 >1 (Fig. 4). Samples HO-3 and HO-21 have Kilauea-like major element compositions, whereas sample C122 is intermediate between Kilauea and Mauna Loa compositions (Fig. 6).
Pillow glass rims from the six Hana Ridge dives have 6·0–8·2 wt % MgO and 49·5–52·6 wt % SiO2 (Table 3; Fig. 8) similar to previously dredged submarine samples. Previously dredged submarine samples are all tholeiitic basalts except for one alkalic glass fragment recovered above the H terrace (smooth section of the shallower portion of the Hana Ridge) (Moore et al., 1990), and have a wider range in MgO (5·3–10·2 wt %) than those of the present study (Fig. 8) (Moore et al., 1990). Major element compositions of pillow glass rims from this study overlap the Kilauea and Mauna Loa fields (Fig. 8a and d) (e.g. Frey et al., 1994). However, in an Al2O3/CaO vs TiO2/Na2O diagram, most of the pillow glass rims plot in the Kilauea field with some samples plotting between the Kilauea and Mauna Loa fields (Fig. 6 h). Most pillow glass rims from this study contain high S (>0·056 wt %), indicating eruptions deeper than a few hundred meters below sea level (Moore & Clague, 1987; Moore & Thomas, 1988; Garcia et al., 1995).
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Compositions of melt inclusions from different type of olivines
Melt inclusions occur in all types (euhedral, subhedral–undeformed and deformed) of olivine phenocrysts. We have analyzed, by EPMA, 31, 19, and 18 un-remelted melt inclusions in euhedral, subhedral–undeformed and deformed olivine phenocrysts, respectively (Table 4). We detect no major element differences between melt inclusions from the different types of olivine hosts (Fig. 8). The compositional ranges of the inclusions are wider than those of the glass rims. Notably, the MgO contents of melt inclusions (2·2–7·8 wt %) are systematically lower than those of pillow glass rims (6·0–8·2 wt %). However, melt inclusions and pillow glass rims plot broadly on the same compositional trend defined by the bulk rocks (Fig. 8). This implies that the melts of olivine inclusions and pillow glass rims were derived from the same parental magma, but the former may have evolved more than the glass rims through crystallization of the host olivine and some other phases, such as chromite, within the inclusion (Clague et al., 1995
).
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Trace element compositions of bulk rocks
The trace element contents of 39 bulk rocks analyzed by XRF and those of 32 bulk rocks analyzed by LA-ICP-MS are listed in Table 2 and plotted against MgO in Fig. 9. The abundance of Ni correlates positively with MgO, whereas Sc, Sr, and Zr show coherent but inverse correlations with MgO (Fig. 9). Abundances of incompatible elements Th, Ba, La, Ce, and P are positively correlated with each other (not shown). The transitional basalts found in the northern lineation (S691-4, 5A, B) have higher Sr concentrations (Fig. 9a), whereas their trace element ratios (e.g. Zr/Nb, Sr/Nb, Ba/Nb) are similar to those of other Hana Ridge lavas (Fig. 11). Both transitional and tholeiitic lavas from the Hana Ridge may have been derived from a similar source, and the differences in major and trace elements contents between transitional and tholeiitic lavas may reflect a difference in the degree of partial melting or a difference in melting depth.
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The ratios of highly incompatible trace elements involving immobile elements such as Sm/Nd, La/Ce, and La/Nb are relatively constant, similar to those of subaerial Honomanu lavas, and show no significant correlation with sample locality or water depth (Fig. 10). However, there is a distinction between the submarine lavas and the subaerial Honomanu stage lavas (e.g. Zr/Nb, Sr/Nb, Ba/Nb; Fig. 11). The Hana Ridge lavas have Sr/Nb and Zr/Nb similar to those of Kilauea lavas (Fig. 11a and b), whereas samples from the subaerial Honomanu stage tholeiitic lavas overlap the Kilauea–Mauna Loa fields in terms of these geochemical parameters (Frey & Rhodes, 1993
) (Fig. 11a and b). Overall, the less altered subaerial samples HO-21 and C122 have Kilauea-like compositions, whereas HO-3 has a Kilauea–Mauna Loa intermediate composition (Figs 6 and 11). There is little variation in Sm/Nd, La/Ce, and La/Nb (see Fig. 10); ratios such as Zr/Nb, Sr/Nb and Ba/Nb also show limited variation and are uncorrelated with MgO (Fig. 11) in Hana Ridge lavas, suggesting that the magma source was relatively homogeneous in chemical composition. The combined major and trace element characteristics indicate that Haleakala volcano originally tapped a magma source that was chemically similar to that of Kilauea lavas, and the source composition changed from Kilauea-type (submarine Hana Ridge) to Kilauea–Mauna Loa intermediate-type composition during further growth of the subaerial volcano. Secular variation in source composition during the growth history of other Hawaiian shields has been reported for Koolau (Jackson et al., 1999; Shinozaki et al., 2002; Tanaka et al., 2002), and Mauna Kea (Eisele et al., 2003).
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONSAMPLE LOCALITY AND PETROGRAPHYANALYTICAL TECHNIQUESRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSUPPLEMENTARY DATAREFERENCES |
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Origin of olivine phenocrysts
To make clear the nature of olivine crystals in the submarine Haleakala lavas, we determined compositions of olivine crystals and inclusions from the three olivine types; i.e. euhedral, subhedral–undeformed, and deformed olivine phenocrysts. Compositions among the three types of olivine as well as olivine of mantle peridotite were compared, and no compositional difference was detected among the olivine phenocryst types (e.g. CaO and NiO vs Fo diagrams, Fig. 3). CaO in olivine from lavas is typical of magmatic values (0·15–0·41 wt %, Garcia et al., 1995
; Norman & Garcia, 1999) and significantly higher than that of olivine from Hawaiian xenoliths (Sen, 1988) (Fig. 3a and b). Furthermore, the compositions of melt inclusions show scatter but there is no systematic difference with regard to the host olivine types (Fig. 8), and the melt inclusion compositions plot on the same trends as pillow glass rims and bulk rocks. Based on these features, we conclude that the various olivine morphological types all crystallized from a magma rather than being mantle-derived xenocrysts.
Primary magma composition
There have been many estimates of the MgO compositions of primary magmas delivered to Kilauea, ranging from as low as 8–13% (Maaloe, 1979) to as high as 20–25 wt % (Wright, 1984). The discovery of high-MgO (up to 15 wt %) glass sands at the foot of Kilauea volcano (Clague et al., 1991) provided direct evidence for the existence of magnesian (at least 15 wt % MgO) primary magma in Kilauea. In contrast to Kilauea, the composition of the primary magma of Haleakala volcano has been estimated by only a few researchers. Chen (1993) suggested that the Haleakala primary magma has a MgO content of 16–17 wt % based on the analysis of the Honomanu Gulch suite. Wagner et al. (1998) studied trace element abundances of high-MgO tholeiite glasses from Kilauea, Mauna Loa, and Haleakala volcanoes. They estimated that the primary magma compositions of Haleakala shield range between 16·7 and 17·6 wt % MgO. Previous primary magma estimates are usually based on the assumption of chemical equilibrium of bulk rocks or pillow glasses with olivine using an Fe–Mg partition coefficient (e.g. Chen, 1993; Clague et al., 1995; Wagner at al., 1998). In this study, based on new compositional data for fresh samples from the submarine Hana Ridge, we constrain primary magma compositions using partition coefficients 
and 
with the most forsteritic olivine. Our estimation method and procedures are stated below.
We assume that the most forsteritic olivine core should represent the earliest crystallized part that may have been in equilibrium with the most primitive (high Mg-number) magma. The compositional relationship between olivine and melt, given as , can be used to calculate the Fe/Mg of melt equilibrated with olivine (Roeder & Emslie, 1970; Roeder, 1974; Takahashi, 1978).
Calcium is one of the most significant minor elements in natural magmatic olivine, and the calcium concentration of the olivine provides useful information about the evolution of the melt phase during crystallization (Libourel, 1999). According to Libourel (1999), Ca partitioning is independent of temperature and fO2 at low and intermediate pressures. When applied to natural olivine, this model reproduces Ca contents (where melt composition is known), to within ±10%. The CaO partition coefficient between olivine and basaltic melt is formulated as
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(molar) in olivine. 
is a pseudo-activity of CaO in the melt, calculated as follows:
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, and where 
stands for the molar fraction of the MO oxide in the melt.
From the bulk-rock composition, values are calculated assuming that bulk rocks represent melt compositions. Calculated values of bulk rocks are plotted against FeO/MgO (open circles in Fig. 12). The partition coefficient can be fitted by an empirical polynomial as a function of forsterite mole fraction of olivine (XFo):
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that equilibrated with magnesian (Fo >90·0) olivine is calculated. The FeO/MgO ratios of melts that equilibrated with magnesian olivine are also calculated using a value of 0·3 ± 0·03 for the 
of olivine–melt (Roeder & Emslie, 1970; Takahashi, 1978) and assuming an Fe2+/FeTotal ratio of 0·9 in the melt (e.g. Clague et al., 1995). Calculated results ( and FeO/MgOmelt) are shown as filled diamonds in Fig. 12. The bulk-rock FeO/MgO ratios were calculated from the bulk-rock compositions. The results show that the calculations based on the olivine compositions (filled diamonds) and those based on the bulk rocks (open circles) are in excellent agreement in the range of the large circle (Fig. 12), indicating that magnesian olivine equilibrated with melts represented by the bulk-rock composition at around FeO/MgO 0·70 or 
. This is equivalent to a primary magma composition with the most forsteritic olivine (Fo90·6) containing 16·7 wt % MgO and 8·4 wt % CaO (Fig. 12). The other major element compositions of the primary magma can be determined from the coherent bulk chemical trends of the Hana Ridge lavas. Our estimate of this primary magma composition is listed in Table 5.
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for bulk rocks and melts equilibrated with the most forsteritic (Fo >90%) olivines. 
, values calculated for the bulk rocks. The ordinate (
,
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Water content of primary magma and pressure of crystallization
To explore the pressure and H2O content during the crystallization stage of Haleakala tholeiite magma, simulations with the MELTS program (Ghiorso & Sack 1995
) were performed. In this study, the MELTS simulations were started with the primary magma composition estimated above and the following parameter ranges were tested: temperature from 1450°C to 1000°C, pressure from 0·1 to 0·3 GPa, and H2O contents of 0·1, 0·5, and 1 wt %. The fO2 of the magma is assumed to be equivalent to the synthetic fayalite–magnetite–quartz (FMQ) buffer during crystallization. Calculated liquid composition lines obtained by MELTS are shown in Fig. 13. Simulations using 0·1 wt % H2O at 0·2 GPa and 0·3 GPa, and 0·5 wt % H2O at 0·3 GPa yielded SiO2 contents lower than those of the actual submarine Hana Ridge lavas. A simulation using 0·1 wt % H2O at 0·1 GPa yielded Al2O3, TiO2, and FeO* trends inconsistent with the submarine Hana Ridge lavas (Fig. 13).
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Mineral assemblages produced by the MELTS program at 0·1 wt % H2O at 0·1, 0·2 and 0·3 GPa, and at 0·5 wt % H2O and 0·3 GPa are not consistent with the phenocryst assemblages observed in the Hana Ridge rocks. For example, we observed the following phenocryst assemblages in the Hana Ridge rocks: (1) olivine; (2) olivine + augite; (3) olivine + augite + plagioclase; (4) olivine + augite + plagioclase + orthopyroxene. This implies that the crystallization sequence of the submarine Hana Ridge lavas was: olivine, augite, plagioclase, and finally orthopyroxene. However, in the MELTS simulation with relatively small amounts of H2O (0·1 wt % at 0·1, 0·2 and 0·3 GPa; 0·5 wt % H2O at 0·3 GPa), orthopyroxene always starts to crystallize earlier than clinopyroxene. Among the calculated liquid lines of descent and mineral crystallization sequences produced by MELTS, those with 0·5 wt % H2O at 0·1 GPa pressure, and those with H2O contents of 1 wt % (at pressures of 0·1, 0·2 and 0·3 GPa), are in general agreement with the crystallization sequence observed in lavas and bulk-rock compositional trends (Fig. 13).
MELTS simulations suggest that the primary magma had about 0·5–1 wt % water. This is consistent with measured water contents in melt inclusions from Kilauea Iki picrites (Wallace & Anderson, 1998). Melt inclusions from the first eruptive episode, before any drainback occurred, have an average H2O content of 0·7 ± 0·2 wt %. Anderson & Brown (1993) reported four inclusions with >0·8 wt % H2O from the same 1959 Kilauea Iki eruption. The H2O/K2O of the primary magma of the submarine Hana Ridge estimated in this study is 1·7, which is slightly higher than that of typical Hawaiian tholeiitic magmas (1·3) (Wallace & Anderson, 1998), but the same as that of submarine glasses from Kilauea (Puna Ridge) (1·7) (Wallace & Anderson, 1998). Considering the effect of degassing from magma in the reservoir at lower pressures (e.g. Clague et al., 1995), 0·5–1 wt % of water in the primary magma is a reasonable estimation.
The results of the MELTS calculation indicate that the submarine Hana Ridge magmas have undergone crystallization at pressures of 0·1–0·3 GPa, which correspond to a depth of 3–9 km assuming an average crustal density of 3 g/cm3. This depth is comparable with estimated mineral fractional crystallization depths of 3–6 km for Puna Ridge lavas (Johnson et al., 2002).
Delaney et al. (1990) proposed that the Kilauea rifts may be underlain by an extensive ‘near vertical dike-like magma system’ at depths of 3–9 km. Ryan et al. (1981) proposed that during the main shield-building stage, a shallow magma chamber fed by a central conduit is maintained at a depth of 2–7 km beneath Hawaiian shield volcanoes. The shield grows as magmas erupt at the summit or are injected into the prominent rift zones that radiate from the summit. Magmas migrate laterally from the summit reservoir into rift zones, and when magma supply rate decreases, isolated magma chambers can form in rift zones at depths of 2–7 km (Yang et al., 1999). Our results suggest that the primitive magma in the Hana Ridge was also stored in shallow magma chamber(s), and that crystallization and accumulation occurred at a depth similar to those for modern Hawaiian shields.
Crystallization and magma mixing
In the MELTS simulation under the conditions estimated above (0·1–0·3 GPa and 0·5–1 wt % H2O), olivine begins to crystallize at 1390–1380°C; clinopyroxene crystallizes from 1140 to 1120°C and from 6 to 5·5 wt % MgO; plagioclase crystallizes from 1170 to 1080°C and from 5 to 2·6 wt % MgO, and finally orthopyroxene appears at temperatures <1060°C and <3·5 wt % MgO, respectively.
However, the temperature range of quenched lavas calculated from the MgO contents of the pillow glass rims using the geothermometer of Helz & Thornber (1987) is from 1179°C to 1137°C, which is higher than that of clinopyroxene crystallization. Accordingly, clinopyroxene, plagioclase, and orthopyroxene phenocrysts in the bulk rocks may not have crystallized from the host magmas directly. A possible interpretation is that these minerals crystallized from a more evolved ‘cool’ magma (i.e. local magma reservoir in the Hana Ridge) and may have been entrained in later magmas. The occurrence of pyroxene–plagioclase glomeroporphyritic aggregates in Hana Ridge lavas supports this interpretation.
We observed petrographic evidence that some minerals are in disequilibrium with the host magma. Some olivine is rounded and resorbed and has reaction rims. Some partially resorbed olivine is commonly rimmed by necklaces of small augite crystals. Rounded orthopyroxene phenocrysts are sheathed in augite and some orthopyroxene has pigeonite reaction rims. Rounded phenocrysts of plagioclase sometimes occur with thin, more Ca-rich rims. Some plagioclase has spongy cores riddled with glass inclusions that are sometimes surrounded by clean plagioclase. These resorbed and disequilibrium crystals occur side by side with euhedral phenocrysts that appear to have been in equilibrium with the host magma. Mixing of primitive and evolved liquids could account for the occurrence of these disequilibrium phenocrysts.
Although magma mixing has probably occurred, fractional crystallization and olivine accumulation are the dominant processes accounting for the compositional variations of submarine Hana Ridge lavas. This is because very small amounts of pyroxene and plagioclase are present in Hana Ridge lavas (each of these minerals is usually <1 vol. % in rocks). Mixing would also fractionate Sm/Sr and Ti/Eu, because these element ratios are sensitive indicators of plagioclase and Fe–Ti oxide crystallization. These ratios are nearly constant in the submarine Hana Ridge magma (Sm/Sr = 0·019 ± 0·0021; Ti/Eu = 7795·97 ± 434·17), indicating that magma mixing was not volumetrically important.
MELTS simulations, as stated above (see Fig. 13), indicate that a significant amount of the compositional variation of the submarine Hana Ridge lavas can be explained by olivine fractionation and accumulation. The compositional trends in other elements also imply that the compositional variation of submarine Hana Ridge lavas can be explained by olivine fractionation and accumulation. The Ni–MgO trend defined by the whole rocks intersects near the middle of the Ni–MgO field of the olivines (Fig. 14), and we infer that the whole-rock trend reflects olivine control with a mean composition of Fo87 (i.e. 46·95 wt % MgO, 13% FeO, 39·4% SiO2, and 0·38 wt % NiO; see Fig. 14). Clague et al. (1995) also found a similar result in FeO*, Ni vs MgO plot for lavas dredged from the Kilauea Puna Ridge, and calculated that Fo87·7 is the average composition of olivine crystallized from the primary magma. It appears that magmatism during the main shield-building stage of Haleakala volcano (i.e. submarine Hana Ridge lavas) was very similar to that in the modern Kilauea volcano.
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The olivine from the submarine Hana Ridge has compositional characteristics indicative of crystallization from magma. However, the kink-banded olivine phenocrysts could not have formed in a liquid. Deformation of olivine phenocrysts in the submarine Hana Ridge rocks could be explained by the mechanism proposed by Clague et al. (1995)
. According to those workers, as much as 22 wt % of olivine should have crystallized from primary Kilauea magma, but these olivine crystals are only rarely included in the magma upon eruption. The olivine in fact accumulated at the base of the magma chamber, and may have deformed during flow of the still-hot dunite body, prior to entrainment in later magmas. The olivine crystals might have been deformed during flow of a nearly solid crystal mush within the rift zone.
Magma source mineralogy
Given our estimate of the primary magma composition, and analytical data for submarine Hana Ridge lavas, it is possible to evaluate the residual mineralogy that controlled the composition of the primary melts. To approximate the primary magma composition, the measured abundances of incompatible trace elements are corrected to 16·7 wt % MgO by addition or subtraction of Fo87 olivine. Ratios of incompatible trace elements also provide important constraints without correction for olivine accumulation (Norman & Garcia, 1999).
It is well known, based on trace element characteristics, that the Hawaiian tholeiitic lavas were derived from a source containing residual garnet (e.g. Clague & Frey, 1982; Frey & Roden, 1987; Frey & Rhodes, 1993; Norman & Garcia, 1999). Trace element patterns corrected to 16·7 wt % MgO (Fig. 15) in submarine Hana Ridge lavas show significant fractionation of the light REE (LREE) but little fractionation of the heavy REE (HREE). The variations in LREE abundances may reflect variations in the degree of melting, whereas the lack of variation in the HREE abundances reflects their high compatibility in the source because of the presence of residual garnet (Frey et al., 1980; Hofmann et al., 1984). Other features of the trace element systematics are inconsistent with the persistence of apatite and amphibole in the source region.
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Although residual garnet is required, the lavas also show evidence for residual clinopyroxene in their source. Following Wagner et al. (1998)
, Sm/Sr is plotted against Sr (corrected to 16·7 wt % MgO, Fig. 16a). The Sm/Sr of the lavas is nearly constant whereas the abundances of Sm and Sr each show variation in correlated data, implying that the two elements have partition coefficients between source material and melt that are nearly identical. When garnet is present as the sole residual phase, the D for Sr in garnet is very low, 0·0023 (Johnson, 1998; Green et al., 2000), and results in DSm/DSr of 78 for garnet, which is too high to buffer Sm/Sr in the melts. To maintain a constant Sm/Sr (see Fig. 16a) during partial melting, a residual phase that has similar DSm and DSr is necessary. D for Sr is moderately high in the bulk solid–melt and D for Sr is between that of Nd and Sm, based on calculations using the Hofmann & Feigenson (1983) inversion model. This constraint rules out olivine, orthopyroxene and spinel, which have very low D values for Sr and Sm. Only clinopyroxene has a moderately high D of Sr, of 0·11 (Johnson, 1998; Green et al., 2000), which is significantly higher than that of the other phases, and results in a DSm/DSr of 2 (Hauri et al., 1994; Johnson, 1998; Green et al., 2000). This indicates that the clinopyroxene/garnet ratio in the source may be high.
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A Tb/Yb vs Th diagram also indicates the presence of clinopyroxene in the source (Frey et al. (2000
; Fig. 16b). The D of garnet/melt for Yb is greater than that for Tb (Green et al., 2000), whereas Yb and Tb partition into clinopyroxene nearly equally (Johnson, 1998; Green et al., 2000). If garnet is dominant in the residue, the Tb/Yb ratios of melts should decrease dramatically as the degree of melting of garnet increases. Because Th decreases with increasing degree of melting (Frey et al., 2000; Sisson et al., 2002), so melting of a source in the garnet peridotite stability field produces a positive correlation of Tb/Yb with Th. However, the submarine Hana Ridge rocks show nearly constant Tb/Yb vs Th (correlated to 16·7 wt % MgO) (Fig. 16b), also indicating that the clinopyroxene/garnet ratio may be high in the source.
The presence of a clinopyroxene-enriched source is consistent with the slightly negative correlation between Th content and CaO content, whereas the Al2O3 content is relatively constant (Fig. 16c and d). This can be explained by the presence of a residual high-CaO clinopyroxene in the source. Th decreases with increasing degree of melting whereas CaO increases because CaO is more likely to behave as a compatible component during partial melting of clinopyroxene-rich source (Yasuda et al., 1994; Kogiso et al., 1998). On the other hand, the Al2O3 contents of the lavas (normalized to MgO 16·7 wt %) may be relatively constant because Al2O3 is buffered by residual garnet (e.g. Kinzler, 1997; Walter, 1998).
We apply the trace elements inversion model of Hoffmann & Feigenson (1983) to evaluate the source mineralogy quantitatively. The results also indicate that the clinopyroxene/garnet ratio is high (>2) in the submarine Hana Ridge source.
The primary magma composition for submarine Hana Ridge is plotted in Fig. 17, showing the melt compositions derived from partial melting of various peridotites (Hirose & Kushiro, 1993; Kushiro, 1996; Walter, 1998). None of the starting materials used for melting experiments, such as KLB-1, PHN1611, KR4003, and HK-66, can yield primary basaltic magma similar to the submarine Hana Ridge. The Hana Ridge primary magma has much lower Al2O3 and CaO than experimentally generated melts at a given MgO content (Fig. 17). This result was noted by Takahashi et al. (1993), who found that FeO and TiO2 are significantly higher, and CaO and Al2O3 are lower, in the Hawaiian tholeiitic lavas than in experimentally generated melts (KLB-1) at a given MgO content. They also proposed that the source materials for Hawaiian tholeiite magmas are significantly different from the normal magnesian peridotite predominant in mantle xenoliths and tectonic blocks.
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Peridotite melting experiments have demonstrated that concentrations of FeO and incompatible elements (Ti, K, etc.) in partial melts depend strongly on the source peridotite composition (Takahashi & Kushiro, 1983
; Kogiso et al., 1998). On the other hand, SiO2 content is rather insensitive to source composition but depends on pressure (Hirose & Kushiro, 1993). Because CaO and Al2O3 are higher and TiO2 is lower in all experimentally generated peridotite partial melts than Hawaiian magma when compared at similar MgO, a source material other than normal peridotite is necessary. |
CONCLUSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONSAMPLE LOCALITY AND PETROGRAPHYANALYTICAL TECHNIQUESRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSUPPLEMENTARY DATAREFERENCES |
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All the rock samples from the six submarine dives analyzed in this study are tholeiitic basalts or picrites, similar to the lavas of the Kilauea shield-building stage. The compositions of melt inclusions and olivine indicate that all olivine (regardless of its morphology) crystallized from the host magmas. The primary magma composition is estimated to have had
16·7 wt % MgO and 8·4 wt % CaO. Major and trace elements characteristics and simulations with the MELTS program imply that fractional crystallization and accumulation were the dominant processes in the evolution of submarine Hana Ridge lavas, and conditions of fractional crystallization were 0·1–0·3 GPa pressure and 0·5–1 wt % H2O in the melt. The trace element characteristics, together with major element compositions, indicate that Haleakala volcano originally had a source composition similar to Kilauea. During the growth history of Haleakala, the magma source changed from Kilauea-type in the submarine Hana Ridge towards Kilauea–Mauna Loa intermediate-type in the subaerial Honomanu stage. Major element and trace element characteristics of the lavas imply that both clinopyroxene and garnet were important residual phases during partial melting. |
SUPPLEMENTARY DATA |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONSAMPLE LOCALITY AND PETROGRAPHYANALYTICAL TECHNIQUESRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSUPPLEMENTARY DATAREFERENCES |
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Supplementary data for this paper and available on Journal of Petrology online.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank the officers, crew, particularly Captain O. Yukawa of the R.V. Kairei and Captain H. Tanaka of the Yokosuka, T. Fukui and Y. Imai (commanders of the R.O.V. Kaikou and Shinkai 6500), and the operation teams support during the Japan–US Hawaiian cruise in 2001–2002. We also thank the scientific team for shipboard assistance and subsequent discussion. We thank F. A. Frey and M. O. Garcia for their many valuable comments. We are grateful to Dr Kogiso Tetsu for discussions and suggestions. This research was supported by Grant 12002006 from the Ministry of Education and Science to E.T. This study was also supported by the Earthquake Research Institute of the University of Tokyo co-operative research program. Constructive reviews by F. Frey and M. Garcia, and editorial revisions by R. Arculus, M. Wilson and Editorial Assistant A. Lumsden are much appreciated.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* Corresponding author. Telephone: +81-3-5734-2338. Fax: +81-3-5734-3538. E-mail: ren{at}geo.titech.ac.jp
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